wmmmm 



TEACHER'S 
MANUAL 



OF 



GEOGRAPHY 



Redwaj 



Nisi 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



@(fap..- @ojtijvigl|t I)a. 

, Shelf _ JL.A2/ 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE TEACHER'S 



Manual of Geography 



I. HINTS TO TEACHERS 
II. MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 



BY / 

JACQUES W. REDWAY 



># 




,4 

>cX«o« _L- 

■ 



BOSTON 

PUBLISHED BY D. C. HEATH & CO. 

1889 



OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 

A SERIES OF GEOGRAPHIES, DESCRIPTIVE, POLITICAL, AND 
PHYSICAL. 

A GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

A GEOGRAPHY OF MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT, AND RHODE 

ISLAND. 
STUDIES IN PHYSIOGRAPHY (in Press). 



Copyright, 1889, 
By JACQUES W. REDWAY. 



G- 



Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston. 



CONTENTS, 



Part I. 

PAGE 

I. Preliminary Oral Work 5 

II. Out-of-Door Lessons for Primary and Intermediate Classes 10 

III. The Use of Pictures and Models 22 

IV. The Recitation in Intermediate and Advanced Work. . 31 
V. Map-Drawing and Map-Making 41 

VI. Hints on teaching Mathematical Geography 54 

Part II. 

VII. Geodesy and Orography 79 

VIII. Hydrography 99 

IX. Meteorology 114 

X. History in Geography 126 

XL Political and Other Boundaries 141 

APPENDIX 151 



PREFACE. 



The suggestions offered in the following Manual have been 
prompted by experience in the school-room, as well as by 
that of exploration and travel. They are intended as a sup- 
plement, and not as a substitute, for the ordinary work of 
the teacher. They will be of no avail whatever where the 
only aim in the study of geography is the preparation for 
examination. I have thought it unnecessary to present any 
graded course of study. The admirable work of Professor 
Frye, 'Child and Nature,' leaves in that direction nothing to 
be desired. Mr. Nicholl's 'Topics in Geography' will also be 
found a most useful companion. 

In the second part of the Manual I have considered some 
of the traditions of geography, in the light of modern science. 
Some of the discussions have not previously been published ; 
and much of the material has been drawn from sources that 
to most educators are not readily available. 

I am not of the opinion that the average teacher needs 
pedagogical regeneration; on the contrary, I believe that less 
energy devoted to improvement of methods, and a little more 
to the quality of the material taught, would not be amiss. 

Acknowledgments are due to Miss E. M. Reed of the 

Training School, Springfield, Mass., for many valuable hints in 

the preparation of this work. 

J. W. R. 



PART I. 

HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

I. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK. 

It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the average child learns 
more of the science of geography in his rambles out of doors, 
before beginning the study in his school course, than he learns 
from the text-book after his school work in that study begins. 
The reason is that, in the one case he reads geography in nature, 
in the other from the printed page. No matter how well and how 
faithfully the teaching may be done, the disadvantages arising from 
the use of words and sentences instead of things in nature, are too 
great to be easily swept away. Within a few years the importance 
of this fact has been so widely recognized by primary teachers 
that, in a majority of schools, text-book work has been largely 
abandoned in primary grades, and oral lessons, aided by the 
moulding-board and the study of natural forms, have very 
properly taken its place. 

The outline of the following course in oral primary geography 
was furnished at the author's request by Miss Mathilde E. Coffin, 
of the Millersville, Pa., State Normal School, as a basis for the 
preparation of this and the following chapter. It is intended as a 
list of topics for oral work rather than a systematic course of study. 
Much of the work discussed must necessarily be done out of doors. 
Children who like to make ' mud pies ' will take equal delight in 
modelling natural forms in sand or in clay. Time ordinarily spent 
in aimless rambling will be gladly devoted to the collection and 
study of natural objects when once there is an incentive for it. In 
ungraded country schools the wise plan of keeping primary pupils 
out of doors at all times when they are not engaged in recitation 



6 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

is an excellent one, and these are the golden hours which the child 
may devote to the study of nature. The out-of-door work should 
of course be supplemented by the necessary developmental exer- 
cises, and lessons in oral expression in the school-room. Bear in 
mind, also, that while recitation-hearing is an easy matter, teaching 
children how to study and how to observe is a qualification de- 
manding the highest capabilities of the teacher. 

Form. — It is well, so far as possible, to acquire a knowledge 
of form from natural objects. Fruit, crystals, forms of leaves, 
shells, animals, and geometric forms will all furnish instructive 
lessons. At first the work must be wholly imitative, but, as skill is 
acquired, objects may be modelled from memory. With the 
modelling of geometric forms comes the necessary instruction in 
the use of descriptive terms, such as plane, curved, level, cubic, 
spherical, square, circular, slanting, vertical, angle or corner, solid, 
horizontal, etc. Inculcate with every step ideas of neatness in 
work and faithfulness to the copy. 

Size. — Teach by actual measurement all the units of linear 
measure within the comprehension of the pupil. The latter should 
be taught to estimate the inch, foot, and yard with the eye. It 
will be found rather more difficult to estimate vertical than hori- 
zontal distances, especially if the eyesight be at all astigmatic. It 
is well to have a pupil learn the length of his ordinary step, so 
that he can pace either a rod or one hundred feet with reasonable 
accuracy. It is not a difficult matter to estimate a distance of one 
mile, but the estimate would better be made by reckoning the 
time required to walk it, rather than by the number of steps. The 
average adult takes about two thousand steps to the mile. Three 
and one half miles per hour is a fair, four miles a brisk, and five 
miles per hour a very rapid gait. Time that is spent in estimating 
and measuring the dimensions of objects is by no means wasted. 
The ability to estimate measurements accurately has a practical 
value to which every person in active business life will testify. 
The estimation of angular distance is also an excellent drill. By 
subdividing an arc which measures a right angle, into halves and 



PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 7 

thirds, almost any angle can be estimated to within two or three 
degrees. 

Color. — The proper development of the color-sense is of no 
little importance to the student of nature. It is well, for many 
reasons, to make a special test of the color-sense of each pupil. 
About ten per cent of young children are deficient in color-vision. 
Of this proportion, some are deficient through physiological causes, 
others from a lack of development of the color-sense, and still 
others from ignorance of the names of colors. The two latter 
causes are remediable, and can be easily removed if the teacher 
will take a little extra pains with each individual pupil. Select 
at first, only bright, pronounced colors, and teach their names. 
Afterwards exercise every pupil in selecting graduated shades of 
each color. A pupil who is physiologically deficient in the color- 
sense will most likely fail in distinguishing the reds and greens. 
Use only well-known and standard names for the various shades 
and mixtures. Such names as 'ecru,' 'faded rose,' 'crushed 
strawberry,' etc., are whims of fancy only, and change with the 
fashions. 

In teaching the primary colors it is best to use the classification 
which science has shown to be the true one, namely — red, green, 
and violet} 

Viewing bits of colored silk through pieces of colored glass is 
in many respects a useful exercise, and will be of material service 
in the development of the color-sense. 

But the colors and the color-names that the pupil must familiar- 
ize himself most thoroughly with are those that he finds in nature. 
There are the various shades of red, as damask, crimson, and 
scarlet \ the greens, as pistachio, apple-, and pea-green ; the blues, 
as indigo, sky-, ultramarine, and cobalt-blue. There are also the 
various shades of lilac, pink, pearl, violet, salmon, fawn, sable or 

1 The old scheme of red, yellow, and blue holds true in mixing a few colors, 
but fails lamentably in the majority of cases. The trouble arises from the 
fact that nearly all the red, blue, and yellow pigments are mixed or impure 
colors. 



8 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

seal-brown, chestnut-brown, russet-brown, iron-gray, silver-white, 
lemon-yellow, golden-yellow, orange-yellow, straw-yellow, tan, and 
a host of others, all named from objects in nature, and all standard 
types of color. In the light of geography these are more impor- 
tant than the bright spectrum colors which are so largely used in 
the arts. If there is any doubt that many of these colors are un- 
familiar save in name, let the teacher direct half a dozen pupils to 
select a fawn or a pistachio shade from a collection of colors. 
Besides these there are the various l lustres,' such as vitreous, pearly, 
metallic, etc., all used in the description of minerals. 

It may be objected that lessons on color belong to the domain 
of physics rather than to that of geography. This is possibly true, 
but we must also bear in mind that color is just as much a feature 
of nature as is the mountain, the plain, or the valley. Moreover, 
it is also a means of cultivating taste, and this of itself is quite as 
important a factor in child- culture as the study of geography. 

Locality. — The sense of the knowledge of position and direc- 
tion, which is practically the • homing instinct' of animals, is 
rarely developed to any great extent in mankind, and it therefore 
becomes a necessary part of education. Develop a knowledge of 
the terms right and left, and up and down. Impress the fact that 
these are terms relating respectively to the human body and the 
centre of the earth. There are various schemes for developing 
an idea of the position of the cardinal points, but it is well to 
begin at once with the direction of the north star. The direction 
of the sun's rising and setting will be worth incidental mention, 
but these should be discussed as varying and not fixed points. 
The direction of the shadow at noon is an excellent point to use 
for illustration, and the ingenious teacher can easily manufacture 
a sun-dial which will show the time between eight o'clock a.m. 
and four o'clock p.m. with reasonable accuracy. This will be 
found an excellent device for encouraging pupils to observe the 
apparent motions of the sun, both daily and yearly. 

It is an excellent plan to have the points of the compass charted 
on a clear part of the school-room floor, or perhaps on the ceiling. 



PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 9 

In studying the various problems under this head, the use of 
the map must necessarily be taken up. Begin with a map or dia- 
gram of the school-room or the school-grounds, and extend the 
area mapped until it includes every part of the district with which 
the pupil is familiar. The location of the principal surroundings 
should be represented approximately to a scale, and the conven- 
tional terms and signs used in chartography should be explained 
and used. It will be a matter of surprise to the teacher who tries 
the experiment, what excellent results can be obtained in these 
first attempts at map -drawing. 



10 HINTS TO TEACHERS 



II. 

OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS FOR PRIMARY AND INTER- 
MEDIATE CLASSES. 

The out-of-door lessons in geography, through which the child 
should receive his first knowledge of the forces of nature, will of 
necessity be confined mainly to the neighborhood in which he 
lives. The method in which these are conducted must depend on 
the judgment of the teacher as modified by surroundings. But 
one direction can be given : namely, make the most of what 
physiographical features the district affords. Supplement this by 
the moulding-board, and by the use of whatever pictures, models, 
etc., can be obtained. 

Earth-Sculpture. — If the surface of the neighborhood is 
uneven, hilly, or rugged, the probabilities are that the uneven- 
ness has been produced by unequal weathering or else by the 
direct action of water. In many instances a hill is formed 
because its substance is harder than the rock surrounding it. So, 
under the action of flowing water, ice, rain, and other weathering 
agents, the surface is unequally worn into hills and valleys. Often 
there are strata of rock which show the corrasive action of running 
water; or perhaps soil, masses of broken rock, etc., have been 
carried down the slope, and spread over the valley below. By 
a careful search one may nearly always find marks of the forces 
which have thus sculptured the earth. In walking along the slope 
of the hill during a hard rain, one may observe the process of 
earth-sculpture in actual operation. The drops of rain that fall 
on the hill-side are clear as crystal. When they reach the bottom, 
however, they are loaded with fine particles taken from the soil. 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 11 

Direct the pupils to observe this, and develop by skilful question- 
ing the effect of the process when long continued. 

Cover a piece of clay with sand on the moulding-table. Incline 
the latter slightly, and pour water on it from a sprinkler. The 
sand is washed away, leaving a miniature hill of clay, and the 
process of hill-making is thus repeated on a small scale. In 
a similar manner place a small piece of slate or a thin piece of 
rock on the sand, and apply the water. The sand is washed out 
under the edges a little way, but the slate protects the great mass 
of it, while all around the sand is carried away. In this manner 
one may show the formation of cliffs and certain types of table- 
lands. 

The study of the hill will lead to that of the mountain- range. 
The explanation of this will be a more difficult task, because the 
essential feature of a mountain-range lies in the fact that it is 
a fold or wrinkle made by a shrinking of the earth. The follow- 
ing expedient has been used by the author for want of a better 
illustration. Take a piece of cloth-covered elastic band, ten or 
fifteen inches in length, and stretch it moderately. Fasten several 
strips of differently colored cloth to the elastic by means of mucil- 
age, and when nearly dry, allow the elastic to slowly contract. 
The pieces of colored cloth will wrinkle and crumple, producing 
an effect which, though not a striking resemblance to mountain- 
folding, is nevertheless a good illustration of the manner in which 
plication occurred. In studying the mountain, begin with the 
range, as directed in p. 25. 

The examples of earth-sculpture which will appeal most strongly 
to the child are those which are the work of running water. The 
little rain-formed rill which trickles along the road cuts a deep rut 
in one place, and spreads out in a broad channel in another. 
Finally it joins another rill, or else pours its current into a pool 
of water, which is a miniature lake or sea. When the rivulet 
reaches its goal, it possibly divides into several streams, forming 
a delta, and perhaps builds a bar opposite to its mouth. 

In such a stream the pupil can see the operation of all the laws 



12 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

which govern the conduct of the Mississippi or the Colorado. 
Develop by skilful questions, inductive and deductive, why the 
rill cuts a deep canon in one place, and deposits silt in another ; 
building its banks and bed higher than the surrounding land, and 
then breaking through them. Show why it forms a delta, a bar, 
or a spit, when it reaches its outlet. The effects of rain combined 
with the corrasion of running water may also be pointed out. 
Develop the fact that a rapidly flowing stream in a rainless region 
will cut deep canons with almost vertical walls. If, on the con- 
trary, the region is one of considerable rainfall, all the sharp, 
angular features will be worn and rounded in harmonious forms. 
This feature of erosion can be shown on the moulding-board, with 
the aid of a sprinkler. 

It is well, also, to observe the effect of vegetation. The dif- 
ference between the erosion of a grass-covered and a denuded 
slope is so marked that it will not fail to be observed and accounted 
for if the pupil's attention is called to it. Pictures of the mauvaise 
terre or ' bad-land ' formation, of the Grand Canon of the Colorado 
River, and of the rounded valleys of Oregon, can be made the sub- 
jects of impressive lessons. Develop the fact that vegetation is 
not only protective to the land, but that it also retards the collection 
of water in the channels which carry it off, thereby largely prevent- 
ing ' freshets,' or floods. 1 

Throw a ridge of sand or mud across the channel of a rill, and 
make a miniature lake. By and by the basin fills, and the water 
runs over the lowest part of the rim. Now let the pupils observe 
carefully what occurs. At the inlet of the lake the current of the 
stream is checked, and the water begins to deposit silt, forming a 
little bar at the mouth. The stream issuing from the lake is like- 
wise at work : it is cutting away the rim of the basin and lowering 
the level of the water. From these facts two good lessons may 

1 In Arizona and Nevada I have more than once seen a flood gather in a 
dry ' wash ' or creek-bed so quickly, after a heavy rain, that the water rolled 
down the canon almost like a solid wall. In two minutes a dry creek-bed 
would become an impetuous torrent. — The Author. 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 13 

be deduced. First, that the stream flowing into a lake is always 
silting the basin. Secondly, the stream which flows from a lake 
is constantly cutting the rim of the basin lower, reducing its size, 
and draining the water away. These are the laws which prompted 
Gilbert to say, ' Rivers are the mortal enemies of lakes.' 

When excursions can be made to the seacoast, impressive truths 
may be learned from the action of the waves. The water-worn 
cliffs show what can be accomplished by the continuous beating 
of the waves upon hard rock. The sand, examined by a magnify- 
ing glass, will show the effect of the never-ceasing surf. If one 
may have the fortune to visit the coast of the South Atlantic States, 
the long, narrow sand-spits formed by the combined action of 
rivers and waves, — one of which pushes the silt sea- ward, and the 
other land-ward, — may be made the subject of a most instructive 
lesson. 

The different outlines of coast must not be forgotten. These 
will be found at the shore of almost any pond or stream of water. 
Indeed, the various types of coast outline may be profitably 
moulded at the shore if they do not occur there. Occasionally it 
will be necessary to obtain pictures or models of the different 
types, and reproduce the forms from these. Do not neglect to 
show that peninsulas are, in most instances, ranges of mountains 
extending into the sea, and that frequently a chain of islands, the 
partly covered summits of the range, lie beyond the point of the 
peninsula. 

Do not neglect to instruct pupils in the application of technical 
names that pertain to a natural feature, and do not extemporize 
names where good ones already exist. The abuse of this privilege 
has already led to much unnecessary confusion. 

Slopes. — The slopes of a body of land are commonly formed 
by mountain systems, but in many instances a low and almost im- 
perceptible ridge of land separates two basins or watersheds. 
Steep or abrupt slopes can always be determined by the eye, and 
the positive slopes of the district should be invariably studied 
when the pupil is learning his first lessons in physical geography. 



14 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

The gentle slopes of land, however, can be estimated naturally in 
only one way ; namely, by observing the direction of the water- 
courses. So helpless is the eye in this respect that the most ex- 
pert surveyors and topographers are often deceived. The slopes 
and hydrographic basins of large areas of land may be conven- 
iently studied from both map and moulding-board. In using the 
map for this purpose, the boundaries of the various basins and 
slopes are found by drawing a light pencil-line so as to separate 
the sources of adjacent rivers and tributaries. In doing this the 
pupil will often discover the untruth of one of the oldest traditions 
of geography ; namely, that the crests of mountain-ranges corre- 
spond with divides. A few moments' work with the pencil will 
show that the exception is true oftener than the rule. 

Soil. — A knowledge of the various kinds of soil is not only 
a necessary part of the study of physical geography, but it has 
a practical value in education that will not be overestimated. The 
varieties of greatest practical use are sand, gravel, clay, and loam. 
Develop by observation and questioning that sand and gravel are 
results of running of water, and lead the pupil to discover how 
rough fragments of rock are converted into rounded pebbles. Do 
not make the mistake of teaching that the soil of deserts is com- 
posed of sand ; for it is very rarely that sand is found in desert 
regions. Pure sand is composed of the mineral silica, and is a 
product of the seashore. The so-called sand of the desert may 
be composed of almost any kind of dry, pulverized earth. 

Develop the idea that the loams are nearly always disintegrated 
or ' rotten ' rock, finely pulverized, and mixed with decayed vege- 
table matter. In many instances loam has been deposited by 
rivers, but sometimes it has been found in situ. In the former 
case it is called alluvial, in the latter, sede?ilary soil. The forma- 
tion of loam will be somewhat difficult of explanation, but it is 
not beyond the understanding of even the younger pupils. The 
action of the angle-, or earth-worm, which is constantly mixing 
and digesting rich, loamy soils within its alimentary canal, will 
make the subject of an excellent lesson. 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 15 

In studying the properties of clay, it will be well to call attention 
to its imperviousness to water, and its extreme hardness when 
dry. Illustrate its commercial value in the manufacture of brick, 
pottery, etc., and its special value in holding near the surface of 
the earth much of the water that falls in the form of rain and snow. 

Vegetation. — The first lessons on vegetable life should be of 
a very practical kind. The study of the germination of seeds, 
although hardly within the domain of geography, is an excellent 
exercise because it is an incentive to habits of observation. 
The flower-garden may be made almost as useful as the black- 
board. There is no reason why the effects of heat and moisture 
on soil should not be as closely studied in the country school 
as in the higher school of learning. Almost every law which 
underlies the geographical distribution of plants may be illus- 
trated in the school district. 

Besides the grains, the fruits, and the vegetables of commercial 
value, it will be well to study the large class of plants ordinarily 
classed as ' weeds.' Nearly all of these have more or less value 
to mankind, or else they are positively baneful. A knowledge of 
the latter is just as important as that of the former ; more espe- 
cially is it necessary to learn how the seeds of the latter are dis- 
tributed. The ' down ' of the Canada thistle and the dandelion, 
and the winged seeds of the maple may be used to illustrate this. 

It is a good plan to encourage pupils to collect and prepare a 
herbarium for the use of the school, arranging and classifying the 
plants of the neighborhood more with reference to their commer- 
cial and economic value than with respect to their botanical places. 
Specimens of all the timber growing in the district may be profit- 
ably collected and preserved ; one side of the specimen being left 
in its natural state, the other planed, and dressed with oil. 

Animals. — The study of animal life is also an important factor 
in the legitimate work of geography. In many instances the study 
may be made observational. The habits and characteristics of 
domestic animals will furnish a fund of useful information. It 
will be well also to discriminate between wild animals that are 



16 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

useful and those that are hurtful to the husbandman. The study 
of the birds and insects with which the pupil is familiar will 
be one of great utility. If the pupils are encouraged to make 
a classified list of all the forms of animal life found in the district, 
the extent of the list will be a matter of surprise. When the list 
is discussed in detail, it will probably lead to the discovery that, 
in general, insects have the various forms of grub, chrysalis, and 
articulate stage. 

Much may be done by reading stories about wild animals ; in 
every case supplementing the story by pictures. The latter may 
be obtained in colors for a very small sum of money. Perhaps 
more can be done in the way of developmental work by skilful 
questioning than by observation and reading. The value of the 
list of questions given in Frye's ' Child and Nature,' pp. 112 and 
113, will be manifest to every live teacher. 

Minerals. — There are few districts which do not abound in 
mineral wealth. In the prairie states the list will be found to be 
surprisingly large, while in the rolling and mountainous regions 
the list may easily be extended beyond the limit of utility. The 
most important are, of course, the minerals of economic use. It 
will be well to have a collection of from fifty to one hundred of 
these, which should be labelled and mounted either on a block or 
a piece of stout card. It should comprise, among others, spec- 
imens of the different varieties of coal arranged in a series ; sev- 
eral varieties of iron ore, notably hematite, limonite, magnetite, 
lodestone, and pyrites. Copper, zinc, nickel, lead, quicksilver, 
and tin ores may be obtained without much difficulty, and in 
every case the metal yielded by the ore should be exhibited. 
Native specimens of rock-salt, sulphur, gypsum, and the ochres 
may be obtained at a trifling expense. Equally important are 
the building stones, such as granite (syenite and gneiss), brown 
sandstone, white sandstone, marble, and other limestones, slate, 
clay, etc. It is best to have the pupils themselves collect or 
obtain the specimens. They should be labelled and mounted in 
as attractive a manner as possible. 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 17 

The Atmosphere. — It is well to impress the fact that the 
atmosphere is just as much a part of the earth as the water or 
the solid rock. Do not allow the notion to be developed that all 
space is filled with air, and do not convey the idea that the earth 
'floats in air.' Emphasize the fact that the air is the outer part 
of the earth, and moves with it in space. 

That air has weight is always more or less difficult to demon- 
strate to a class, not because it may not be shown by simple 
experiments, but from the very common opinion that there is a 
force generally known as ' suction.' The boy's toy called the 
' sucker,' a piece of thick, pliable leather, with a string fastened 
to the centre, is instructive as a means of illustration. When the 
sucker is saturated with water, and pushed firmly against a smooth 
board or a polished boulder, it requires considerable force to pull 
it away. The most convincing proof of the weight of air, how- 
ever, may be found in the fact that a two-gallon glass jar, when 
exhausted by means of the air-pump, loses about half an ounce 
in weight. 

It will be well, also, to develop the fact that the column of mer- 
cury in the barometer exactly balances or weighs a column of air 
of equal area. A serviceable barometer may be easily constructed 
by inverting a tube about thirty-six inches long, filled with quick- 
silver, so that the open end rests in a small vessel half full of the 
same metal. Measure the height of the quicksilver in the tube, 
and fasten upon it a paper scale of inches and tenths so as to 
mark the height of the column. The instrument thus constructed 
will show the changes in the pressure (weight) of the atmosphere 
with reasonable accuracy. 

Show by any of the well-known experiments that air when 
heated expands in volume, therefore becoming, bulk for bulk, 
lighter than cold air. The boy's whirligig held over a hot stove 
at once acquires a rapid motion because of the ascending current 
of warm air. Do not allow the impression to obtain that hot 
air ' rises ' because of its lightness. What really occurs is, that 
heavier cold air flows in and pushes it upwards. 



IS HINTS TO TEACHERS 

The mutual but adverse motions of cold and warm currents of 
air may be best shown by the time-worn experiment of holding 
two lighted candles, one at the top, the other at the bottom of a 
door which opens into a heated room. In the study of the winds, 
it is not easy to find an illustration of wider application than this. 
It is an excellent plan to have pupils observe daily the motions of 
the winds, especially the direction of the wind which precedes 
storms and that with which the storm clears. 

The moisture in the atmosphere may be shown in different 
ways. The ' drying up ' of pools of water after a rain, the evapora- 
tion of water in an open vessel exposed to the air, and the disap- 
pearance of the dew after sunrise, may be made the subjects of 
extremely entertaining lessons. That moisture is present in the 
dry air of a room may be shown by filling a pitcher or other vessel 
with iced water. As the atmospheric moisture is condensed on 
the outside of the vessel, wipe the latter, and allow it to condense 
again, as a further proof. Lead, step by step, to the fact that when 
the temperature is lowered quickly, much of the vapor of water is 
changed to its ordinary liquid form, and appears as dew, mist, fog, 
cloud, or rain. 

It will be an excellent plan to have pupils make daily observa- 
tions on the winds, clouds, and general condition of the weather. 
Such observations may have but little worth in themselves, but 
they are direct means to a very valuable end. In many instances 
it will be practicable to have the daily weather indications dis- 
played in the school-room, and in any case, good results will 
invariably come from keeping a daily weather-record. 

Seasons. — Many instructive lessons may be drawn from the 
study of the astronomical side of geography. With primary pupils 
these will of necessity be fragmentary and incomplete. The pupil 
will, however, become familiar with many facts which will render 
the study of mathematical geography far easier in after years. 

Have the pupils note the position of the sun at different times 
in the day, and explain to them the phenomena of its apparent 
motions. Note also the change in the position of the sun at ris- 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 19 

ing or at setting during each month in the year. Measure the 
shadow of any fixed object at noon, during the successive months 
in the year. Some of these phenomena will be difficult of explana- 
tion to younger pupils, and it is perhaps better to attempt none — 
certainly none that will confuse. It will be practical, however, to 
connect the low noon sun and its northerly position at rising and 
setting, with the short days, long nights, and cold weather of win- 
ter. This, at least, can be understood by the most immature 
pupils. 

The foregoing chapter, as is designated by its title, is intended 
to suggest a certain line of out-of-door work. Some of the ideas 
suggested are doubtless beyond the comprehension of very young 
pupils ; others may be profitably repeated in a more systematic 
order when the pupil has reached advanced work in geography. 
The success of out-of-door work will depend mainly on the judg- 
ment of the teacher in selecting the material for the illustration of 
these object lessons. It will depend largely, also, upon the skill 
in interpreting natural phenomena, for any teacher who imagines 
that such work can be done without careful preparation will fail 
ignominiously in accomplishing tangible results. The teacher 
must not only acquaint himself with the study of physiography in 
general, but also with that of the district in detail in order to im- 
part lessons that carry conviction. 

During the period in which the out-of-door work is carried on, 
the more systematic in-door lessons should not be neglected. If 
a text-book is used, supplement and illustrate it with the moulding- 
board, with pictures, and with instructive stories from authentic 
books of travel. 1 If the mental pictures can be imprinted in the 
pupil's mind, almost any means will justify the end. 

With the consideration of the foregoing topics, which may em- 
brace a period of two years of time, there is a certain amount of 

1 Do not forget that there is much worthless literature under the name of 
books of travel. The books and sketches of inexperienced tourists who make 
flying trips through foreign places may be entertaining, but they are generally 
incorrect with regard to geographical information. 



20 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

other observational work which also is included in geography; 
namely, the study of people, their social life, government, re- 
ligion, etc. Much of this must be done with the aid of pictures 
and books of travel. Still another feature that will constantly 
come to the foreground is the geography of commerce. In spite 
of sentiment, the commercial idea is the one upon which all 
study and mental development centres. The opinion as to ' what 
ought to be ' will not change the cold facts of the case, and the 
study of the commercial side will always be the practical objective 
point of geography. We may as well open our eyes to the fact 
that all human energy is bent to the purpose of procuring food 
and shelter. The net-work of railways, the fleets of steamers and 
sailing vessels, the coal and iron mines, the thousands of factories, 
the entire energy of the husbandman, have but one end in view — 
to allay hunger. All the mechanical energies of man are devoted 
indirectly to the production and transportation of food. Is it 
singular then that there are a few hard-headed, unsentimental peo- 
ple who will persist in putting the study of geography on a com- 
mercial basis? A journey through a grocery store will make a sub- 
ject for many excellent object lessons, and a history of the travels 
of a battered coin will make a subject for many a written exercise. 
A well-known teacher in Boston requires one or more pupils to 
board nearly every ship arriving at that city from a foreign port, in 
order to learn the character of its cargo. It is safe to affirm 
that the pupils of that school know something about the geography 
of commerce that cannot be learned from text-books. 

In teaching younger pupils, it will be an excellent plan to dis- 
play commercial products in their various stages of manufacture. 
For instance, the cotton industry may be illustrated by cotton in 
the boll, in the raw or unginned state, in the spun fibre, and in 
various textile fabrics. A similar plan may be adopted with other 
textile goods, with the common ores which yield useful metals, and 
with articles of ordinary food. The various grades of sugar, tea, 
coffee, etc., are well worth the acquaintance of the pupil ; and the 
usual processes through which grain passes in its journey from 



OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 21 

the field to the table will be sources of instructive object lessons. 
If the teacher has any doubts about the value of the commercial 
importance of geography, 1 follow the commercial history of an 
illustrated school book from the time the raw materials employed 
in its manufacture are produced, until the finished volume is placed 
in the hands of the pupil. In the printer and binder's establish- 
ment alone, nearly one hundred distinct processes are necessary 
to produce an electrotyped book. 

1 ' In considering geography we deal with a subject particularly interesting 
because of its relations to man. It is the first of the elementary studies which 
teaches the child that he is part of a community, that the community is part of 
a nation, that the nation is part of the human race. He now learns how he 
differs from his European brothers in character, politics, society; and that 
these differences result from differences in the climate, the industries, and the 
geography of their respective countries. He begins to realize his dependence 
upon his fellow-beings. The coffee he drinks is prepared from beans gathered 
by savages in South America or in the East Indies. His tea is steeped from 
leaves dried by the Japanese or the Chinamen. Perhaps he sweetens his South 
Carolina rice with Cuban sugar. He eats mackerel caught in the fiords of 
Norway. Saginaw salt combines with India pepper to give relish to his Ken- 
tuckian sweet potato. Mediterranean sardines are served on slices of Califor- 
nian lemons. His dime coined from silver mined in Nevada buys dates 
plucked from palms in Africa. Possibly he corks his ink bottle with a bit of 
bark from a tree growing in Spain. Thus every article of commerce testifies 
to the labor of his fellow-beings far and near. Distant countries are brought 
nearer by handling these commodities. But this dependence upon remote 
parts is due to climate; and climate depends upon altitude, latitude, forests, 
winds, rains, oceanic currents. These subjects are not treated upon in descrip- 
tive geography; hence to give satisfactory explanations, the teacher must 
understand physical geography, which in turn must be backed by natural 
philosophy. Indeed, a separation of descriptive and physical geography is 
impossible.' — Miss T. E. Reul, in Wisconsin Journal of Education. 



22 HINTS TO TEACHERS 



III. 
THE USE OF PICTURES AND MODELS. 

The Value of Pictures. — No other view of a landscape is 
half so beautiful or so instructive as that which one obtains from a 
great elevation. No one can comprehend the profound depths of 
the Grand Canon of the Colorado River who has not beheld this 
vast abyss from some overhanging buttress of Point Sublime. It 
is impossible to appreciate the immensity of the Rocky Mountains 
unless one views the ocean of peaks and folds from some point 
like Bellevue or Sierra Blanca. Only such outlooks as these afford 
that inspiration necessary to convey an idea of the vastness and 
the sublimity of nature's marvellous sculpturing. 

And the reason is obvious. It is not merely a matter of height, 
nor of depth, nor of the gigantic proportions of any one object. 
It is the far-reaching panoramic view which enables one not only 
to behold the individual feature, but also to measure and contrast 
all features at the same instant, that so delights the mind. One 
naturally and instinctively seeks an elevated point from which to 
view an extended scope of country, and the teacher who habitually 
makes the Saturday excursion a part of the curriculum of school 
work, will testify to the value of a wide stretch of landscape as an 
inspiration and an incentive to the study of nature. 

Who has not noticed the interest which is excited by a picture 
of a broad valley, flanked on either side by distant ranges of moun- 
tains ? How flat and uninteresting in comparison is a picture of a 
single object of a landscape, stripped of every feature by which it 
can be compared or contrasted ! The bird's-eye view is, and always 
will be, the chief assistant to the live teacher of geography and the 
delight of the pupil. It is worth a volume on improved methods 



USE OF PICTURES AND MODELS 23 

of teaching, and it will teach more in a given time than a dozen 
text-books. It furnishes an almost endless series of object lessons 
in physical geography, and it is more graphic than pages of descrip- 
tive matter. It teaches unconsciously ; it appeals to the mind as 
well as the eye ; it tells a plain story in a way that carries the pro- 
foundest conviction. 

' If,' said a well-known teacher and author, ' I were to choose 
between two elementary text-books of geography, one of which 
was all text and no pictures, and another all pictures and no text, 
I should undoubtedly choose the latter, if the pictures were true 
to nature.'' There are but few educators who will not agree to 
this, and the modern teacher finds her picture scrap-book fully as 
useful as the text-book, even with the more advanced classes. 

The various illustrated papers and magazines, especially such 
journals as Frank Leslie's, the Scientific American, Harper's, Scrib- 
ner's, and the Century always contain a host of illustrations which 
can be made useful to both teacher and pupil. It is well, more- 
over, to select and classify from fifty to seventy-five pictures which 
shall represent types of geographical forms, such as mountain 
ranges, peaks, valleys, plains, rivers, lakes, etc. In most of the 
text-books of geography the illustrations are excellent in character, 
and fairly true to nature. 

The Moulding-Board. — In connection with the pictorial scrap- 
book, a very important auxiliary to the school furniture is the 
moulding-board. This piece of apparatus is practically a shallow 
box, four feet by three, and about two inches deep. It is most 
conveniently attached to a table about thirty inches in height in 
such a manner that it may be inclined at any angle. A zinc-lined 
box or drawer for holding the sand may be fastened to the under 
side of the table. Moulder's sand, such as is used in iron-foun- 
dries, is the best for the purpose, but any fine white sand will 
answer. It should be occasionally sifted, and should always be 
closely covered when not in use. Moulder's sand is always more 
or less cohesive ; white sand should be occasionally dampened, 
but never made so wet that it is sticky. 



24 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

The moulding-board is primarily for the use of the teacher. For 
the personal work of the pupil, Professor Frye some years ago 
introduced the use of a shallow modelling-pan made of tin, — a ves- 
sel about twenty by fourteen inches in area, with a rim an inch 
high. These are to be used by the pupils in repeating the forms 
of elevation and outline they have learned from nature, and in 
solving the various problems of slope and drainage which the 
teacher may deem essential. 

It is well to bear in mind that the use of the moulding-board is 
intended for the repetition of forms which actually occur in nature, 
and not for the creation of forms which exist only in the imagina- 
tion. The pupil should begin these exercises by reproducing 
those forms which are to be found about the school district. If 
these consist of rolling land, then he should proceed by easy steps 
to mould these features. If the pupil lives in a prairie region, the 
first lessons would naturally be the reproduction of a tolerably 
level surface with the ravines that score it. This should be fol- 
lowed by a representation of such forms as can be learned from 
pictures and description. 1 With the moulding of each form, the 
technical names which pertain to it should also be learned. Thus 
if a mountain range is under consideration, the terms, base, slope, 
canon, summit, crest, peak, pass, etc., should be explained and 
the object moulded. It is better to work slowly and to insist 
on faithful representation. Recollect that neatness and con- 
sistency are just as valuable as disciplinary agents in child-culture, 
as are geography and arithmetic. 

In representing coast-lines much pains must be taken to dis- 
criminate between the frayed rock-bound shores which character- 
ize the coast of Maine, the cliff-skirted beaches like those of 
Newport, and the low, flat, sandy shores of New Jersey, almost 

1 Prof. N. S. Shaler of Harvard University has prepared a set of models 
which are of great value as types of earth-sculpture. These are accompanied 
by instructive photographs. A large number of photographs of typical studies 
in physical geography has been collected by the author. In every case these 
are reproductions from nature (see p. ooo). 



USE OF PICTURES AND MODELS 25 

rim-bound with islands and sand spits. These are types, and they 
should therefore be reproduced. In the same manner there should 
be some pains taken to show the difference between the young 
valley, with its sharp, angular outlines as typified in the Bad Lands, 
from the older valleys, with their rounded, symmetrical forms. The 
volcano, with its peculiar conical shape, its crater and monticules, 
will be found rather difficult of reproduction. It would be well, 
therefore, to use typical pictures of such forms, and guide their 
modelling by the accompanying description. In all cases avoid 
exaggeration of details. Do not give a mountain slope an angle 
of sixty or seventy degrees from the plain. It is rarely that the 
slope of a range exceeds twenty or thirty degrees — generally not 
more than twelve. Do not begin the forms of elevation by mould- 
ing a mountain peak. Isolated peaks are very rare, and when 
they occur they are of volcanic origin. Begin with the range and 
show how, by unequal wearing, some parts of the crest are left 
higher than others. These higher parts of the crest are the moun- 
tain peaks. Recollect that the range and not the mountain-peak 
is the unit. Proceed from the range to the series of ranges which 
go to make up the mountain-system. Mould the range as a fold 
or flexure, and not as a line of peaks ; such an idea is unpardona- 
ble at this late day. The ' wind gaps ' and water gaps or trans- 
verse valleys will also afford highly instructive lessons. 

The more difficult subject of slopes and river-basins may fol- 
low when, in the judgment of the teacher, the pupils have suffi- 
ciently mature preparation. A good exercise may be found in the 
following plan. Take a sheet of thick writing-paper, and after 
crumpling it in the hand spread it out by pulling at the edges. 
The wrinkles in the paper will make a number of basins and 
divides which may be approximately copied in sand. 

It is well to bear in mind that the crests of mountain systems 
and ranges rarely ever correspond with the divides between water- 
sheds or slopes. The Rocky, the Sierra Nevada, the Appalachian, 
and the Andes Mountains are all pierced by streams whose sources 
are on one side, and whose mouths are on the other side of their 



26 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

crests. The same is likewise true of many of the lofty ranges of 
Asia and Africa. To understand this will be somewhat difficult at 
first, but the difficulties may be avoided by constructing the slopes 
first and moulding the ranges in their proper places on the slope. 
This must not be regarded as a subterfuge to enable one to crawl 
out of a difficulty. Remember that it is in precisely the same 
manner that nature has solved the problem. Wherever a stream 
flows in a canon through a mountain-range, the stream has always 
had the right of way, flowing in its channel long before the uplift 
of the mountain-mass began, and cutting its channel into the 
mountain-axis in much the same manner as the saw cuts the log 
which is moved against it. 

It is an excellent plan to encourage the pupil to reproduce one 
or more models of the forms of land in clay. This will entail 
much extra work on both pupil and teacher, but the end will 
justify the means. In the clay model, accuracy to nature and 
faithfulness to the more minute details should be the first aim. 
When these have been accomplished the artistic effect is well 
worth looking after. The former is a testimonial to the energy 
and progress of the pupil ; the latter is a source of delight not only 
to pupil and teacher, but to all who may see it. It goes without 
saying that such models should be carefully preserved in the 
school museum. There can be no more striking evidence of what 
the brains and hands of the average pupil can accomplish when 
trained to work in har?nony. 

As the pupils acquire greater facility in working with the mould- 
ing-board, and gain a more exact knowledge of the details of 
relief forms, the teacher should gradually require greater care in 
the specialization of types of relief, and greater accuracy of pro- 
portion. It will be a good plan at this stage of progress to at- 
tempt a relief map of the district. In many instances this task 
will be more difficult than it appears at first sight. It is not so easy 
to group a number of different forms, roughly moulded, as it is to 
reproduce a single one minutely. It will be well to construct an 
outline map of the district, indicating the positions of the various 



USE OF PICTURES AND MODELS 27 

features, and fixing a number of pins — say twenty or thirty — to 
mark their proportionate altitudes. The surface features may then 
be moulded to correspond with these. It is also a good plan to 
make a rough model in sand, at first, as a guide to the finished 
model in clay or plaster. 

Throughout the whole course of work in moulding and model- 
ling, faithfulness to nature is the one thing that both teacher and 
pupil should keep steadily in view. The whole object and end of 
modelling is reproduction, and not creation. The model is the 
expression of the form as it occurs in nature, and when the form 
has been so thoroughly photographed in the mind that it can be 
reproduced at will, then the model and the moulding-board may 
be put aside. 

Clay Models. — The relief map is the outgrowth of the mould- 
ing-board and the model. It is designed to illustrate what cannot 
possibly be shown upon a flat surface. It naturally precedes the 
map, for the very same reason that we must study the physical geog- 
raphy of a region before we can obtain a comprehensive knowledge 
of its political and industrial features. But the relief map and the 
political map are complements of each other. Each displays 
features that cannot be well shown upon the other. The black 
outlines of a political map give no concept of a shore, and the 
hachure lines are equally useless in attempting to depict topog- 
raphy. On the other hand, a relief map is useless in showing 
political divisions, the grouping of population, or the routes of 
commerce, and, unless it is a highly finished and expensive map, it 
shows the drainage imperfectly at the best. 

The quickly prepared relief, moulded in sand, should always be 
used by the teacher in illustrating the general topography and 
physiography of a region, country, or grand division ; but this is 
quite a different thing from the finished relief map. The former 
should be moulded in sand, in the presence of the class. It 
should show only those general features of relief which separate 
distinct physical regions. Everything beyond this leads to confu- 
sion rather than to clearness. The finished model, on the con- 



2S HINTS TO TEACHERS 

trary, should depict the topography as truthfully as our knowledge 
of the region will permit. It must be borne in mind, also, that the 
making of such a map is a work requiring much labor and time, 
and, if a finely finished, attractive model is desired, the modeller 
must possess not only good judgment and knowledge, but skill and 
artistic taste as well. To such of the more advanced pupils as 
show aptitude in this work, the discipline and skill acquired in the 
construction of a relief map will more than repay the expenditure 
of time and labor. The following directions will enable one to plan 
a relief map ; the successful execution will depend on the skill, 
perseverance, and artistic taste of the modeller. 

Let us suppose a clay model of the United States is to be con- 
structed. Draw an outline map of the United States on very thick 
paper, of such dimensions that the width east and west shall be 
about three feet. Enter with pencil line the position and trend of 
all the principal highlands, mountain ranges, and divides. Procure 
from the United States Geological Survey a copy of Gannet's 
Dictionary of Altitudes (costs 20 cents), and pencil upon the map 
at equal or nearly equal distances the altitudes of the various 
localities. These bench marks may be about an inch and a half 
or two inches apart in the open plain regions, but are neces- 
sarily closer together in the highland regions. The map thus 
prepared is used as a memorandum for the relief work. 

The base of the map should be made of i^--inch boards 
matched closely and securely cleated on the under side to prevent 
warping. Lay the map on the surface of a large vessel of water, 
or else sponge the under side of the paper until the latter is 
thoroughly saturated, having previously cut away every part of 
the paper outside of the outline. When the paper is saturated, 
remove it from the water, place it face downwards on a large 
sheet of blotting-paper, and give it a coating of mucilage or book- 
binder's paste. The surface of the board should be dampened, 
or, what is better, receive an application of paste on that part 
which will be covered by the map. Next, transfer the map to 
the board. Be careful that no air-bubbles are left between the 



USE OF PICTURES AND MODELS 29 

paper and the board, and use the utmost care that no part of the 
paper is pulled out of shape. After transferring, place the board 
face down on a sheet of paper and allow it to dry for a day or two. 

The next part of the process is to fix guiding pins for the alti- 
tudes. On a relief map of the horizontal scale adopted, 20,000 
feet to the inch will be found convenient for the vertical scale. 
Procure a paper of small pins, and set a pin vertically at each 
bench mark, the length of the pin above the surface being meas- 
ured so as to represent the proportionate height of the surface. 
The clay, wet only enough to be cohesive, may then be worked 
upon the map, building it up to the level of the tops of the pins. 
Run narrow cylindrical rolls of clay along the mountain-ranges. 
Punch them into shape with the fingers first, and work the ridges 
into shape with a knife and a pointed piece of bone. Make the 
crests notched and irregular, and score the sides so as to break 
the irregularity of the slopes. The weather-worn summits of the 
highlands are difficult of reproduction, but the views of western 
scenery published by the various trans-continental railway com- 
panies will be of great service in suggesting the topographical 
features. 

When the modelling is finally completed and the model is 
dry, there remains only the coloring and the finishing details of 
entering the water- courses, etc. If the color of the clay is not 
a pure white, it may be modified by carefully dusting finely 
ground plaster of Paris over the surface, any excess of material 
being blown off with a pair of small hand-bellows. The rivers 
may be most conveniently put in with a fine brush, using cobalt 
or ultamarine blue ground in oil. That part of the board which 
represents the sea-level should be sized, dusted with plaster of 
Paris, and, when dry, also colored blue. 

Whenever contour maps can be procured, the work of model- 
ling is made vastly easier. The contour lines being lines of equal 
elevation, it greatly reduces the work of establishing bench marks, 
and does away with the use of pins to mark altitudes. Sheets of 
pasteboard of uniform thickness are procured, each thickness 



30 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

of the board representing a certain number of feet. If the con- 
tours are 200 feet apart, the thickness of the pasteboard will rep- 
resent a relief of 200 feet. The contour lines are first traced on 
thin paper, and afterwards transferred to the pasteboard. The 
latter is cut along the line, and, beginning with the lowest alti- 
tude, the contours are fastened to the base-board. The successive 
elevations are built on this step by step, as the contour lines follow 
one another, until the work is finished. The clay may now be 
moulded over this form, and finished as before. This method 
was followed by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, who made a series of 
models for the author a few years since. It is by far the most 
satisfactory way whenever a contour map can be procured. 

In every case the vertical scale should be exaggerated as little 
as possible. If the area to be modelled is a country or even 
a state, there need be no exaggeration whatever, or at the most 
it need not exceed 3:1. In the case of a grand division, the 
vertical scale may be raised as high as 10:1. Mr. MindelefPs 
model of Europe, one of the finest works of the kind extant, has 
a scale of only 5:1. In a relief map of a large area some vertical 
exaggeration is absolutely necessary, but to raise the scale to 100 : 1 
or 500 : 1, as is often done in profiles and cheap relief maps, is 
a gross abuse for which there is no excuse whatever. The relief 
map is intended as a reproduction, not a caricature of nature, and 
it is questionable whether one is justified in attempting to teach 
truth by the agency of a grave error. 



INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED WORK 31 



IV. 



THE RECITATION IN INTERMEDIATE AND 
ADVANCED WORK. 

That the first steps in the study of geography should be entirely 
observational, and the instruction oral, are points upon which all 
educators agree. Beyond that point there are almost as many 
methods and opinions as there are teachers. Certain it is that 
most of the multitude of ' methods ' are good if only they are 
faithfully followed. Whenever the method is designed to develop 
and strengthen the thinking powers of the mind — whenever its use 
begets increase of perception and the logical deduction of cause 
and effect, — then it is good. If, on the contrary, the method is 
designed to enable teacher and pupil to acquire the greatest 
number of facts in the shortest space of time, with a view to 
passing an examination for promotion, — even then the method has 
something of good in it. It is good for the teacher, if the class 
reaches the necessary per cent promotion ; it is good for nothing 
as a means of education. In the following pages no method is 
laid out to be followed. The suggestions which are offered are 
adaptable to any method which educates ; the cautions are mainly 
those which will enable the teacher to avoid a waste of energy. 
Neither the suggestions nor the cautions will be available if the 
teacher's work consists only in making the abutments for an ex- 
amination bridge. 

The recitation should be a teaching, and not a lesson-hearing 
exercise. The quiz exercise, by which the teacher tests the faith- 
fulness of the pupil's memory work, is proper at times ; it has 
its legitimate place in the recitation. But when the recitation 
is made exclusively a question-and-answer fusilade of text-book 
matter, then the true work of the teacher ceases, and the latter 



32 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

becomes a sort of record-book clerk. Too often the quiz-work is 
made the primary, and true teaching the secondary, work of the 
recitation. 

Should text-books be used in intermediate and advanced geog- 
raphy study ? If the pupil can understandingly read the text, yes ; 
if not, no. It is a waste of time for the pupil to attempt to read 
a book until he has learned to read ; up to that time the work must 
be oral. Oral work of excellent quality can be, and has been 
done, in intermediate grades, but there is much loss of time 
and energy. Good sewing can be done by hand, and good 
watches can also be made by hand, but in both instances the 
work becomes very expensive, because the use of the tool or 
machine enables the workman to accomplish much more in a 
given time than the unaided hand can do. Now the book 
properly used is a tool which enables both teacher and pupil to 
do better work in less time. 

The objection is often raised that the pupils will learn and recite 
the words of the book without comprehending their meaning. 
Certainly they may, but not until they have been driven to it by 
unskilful teaching. The legitimate work of the recitation will pre- 
vent this. At first the pupil uses the text-book as awkwardly as 
he would use any other tool, but, under the skilful questions of 
the teacher, ideas begin to grow out of what were at first mean- 
ingless words. This is an educating, — a true teaching process. 
At first the recitation must be mainly devoted to teaching the 
pupil how to study the lesson, for it cannot be expected that he 
will do so without assistance. This is not an easy matter, and 
the ability to do it well is a crucial test of good teaching. 
Little by little, as this is accomplished, the teacher's help may 
be withdrawn. Work of this kind is wholly developmental, and 
while it is going on, it is essential to have the books wide open 
in the hands of the pupils. In other words, they must study, 
learn, and recite at the same time. 

It is necessary that the style of the elementary geography 
should be simple, clear, and inductive — easy words, short sen- 



INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED WORK 33 

tences, and well-arranged paragraphs. Fortunately many of the 
elementary geographies have this merit. In a few instances, how- 
ever, the text merely outlines a course of the first steps in geog- 
raphy. A book of this character, however valuable as a teacher's 
manual, has no proper place in the hands of pupils. The oral 
lessons, which properly constitute the beginning steps of the 
pupil in the study of geography, necessarily come at a time when 
he is unable to read understandingly. When the pupil can 
read with some fluency, when he can comprehend the meaning 
of what he ordinarily reads, then he has reached the stage of 
development where the book may be properly used. The 
child learns to read so that he may study books. If he is 
never to study from a book, why learn to read at all ? The wise 
teacher — if the school-book syndicate permits — will choose an 
elementary text-book in which geographical knowledge is pre- 
sented in a style which can best be digested by her pupils. She 
will have a wide choice between the book of fairy stories with- 
out geography, and one which is all geography without the 
stories. 

In the advanced work in geography, — that is, when the pupil 
takes up a l grammar-school' or 'complete' geography, — the work 
of both teacher and pupil is necessarily different. There is more 
memorizing, and less developmental work to be done. The for- 
mer must be done by the pupil during study-hours ; the latter, 
under the guidance of the teacher. The topical recitation, the 
pupil once properly trained to it, will furnish the test of his faith- 
fulness during the study-hour. Not only this, but it also trains the 
pupil to express his thoughts fluently, concisely, and correctly in 
his own language. If nothing else were accomplished, this alone 
would be a valuable discipline. But the true work of the teacher 
begins at this point ; namely, to round off the facts recited, by 
developing their logical connection, their sequence, and the opera- 
tion of the causes which produce effects. This can be done only 
by skilful questioning — questioning of a similar kind to that by 
which the expert lawyer ferrets out the innermost secrets of a 



34 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

recalcitrant witness. It goes without saying that the questions 
available for such work are not the ones found on the printed page 
of the text-book ; on the contrary, the questions not found there 
are those which will best arouse the mental activitie's. 

In advanced, as in elementary work, the reviews should be fre- 
quent and searching, The skilful teacher will make quick and 
thorough work of the review, and, while taking new steps, will 
emphasize their dependence upon those mastered. 

The advanced text-book in geography may of necessity contain 
much more material than is desirable for any one pupil to learn. 
This feature, when we examine it rightly, is essential to any useful 
text-book. Difference in the locality of the school, in the grade 
of the class, and in the specific work of the school, necessitates a 
different selection of the material to be taught. The text-book 
must, therefore, contain more matter than is needed by any 
individual or class ; the map must contain many names and 
localities not alluded to in the text, and there must be more or 
less memory work. The ' cyclopedic ' geographies undoubtedly 
have their disadvantages ; but on the whole, redundancy of mate- 
rial is hardly so serious a fault as paucity of ideas. 

Do not attempt to teach the physical features of a grand divis- 
ion, or other large body of land, from the ordinary colored map. 
Use a relief map if you can get nothing better, but by all means 
endeavor to use a sand or clay model. These can be made suf- 
ficiently accurate to show the main divides and slopes. Show 
none but the great characteristic features at first, then, if there 
be opportunity and time, develop the incidental features. For 
instance, suppose we were to mould the United States. After 
laying off the general shape of the country, mould a single 
ridge to represent the Appalachian Highlands ; another to repre- 
sent the Rocky Mountains proper ; and another to represent the 
Sierra Nevada and Cascade chain. Press the sand or clay into 
the proper shape on either side of the Mississippi River to show the 
foot-hills of the Appalachian Highlands on one side, and the ele- 
vated ' plains ' on the other. Show the general structure of the 



INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED WORK 35 

Great Basin between the Rocky and the Sierra Nevada-Cascade 
chain. Make a very gentle swell to separate the Arctic from the 
Gulf and the St. Lawrence drainage, taking care not to mould high 
ridges here, for there are none. This swell represents the Heights 
of Land. Such a model will show all the characteristic physical 
features of the country, and these should be thoroughly under- 
stood by the pupil before studying the subordinate details. 

Do not teach natural products as confined to political divisions : 
they belong to physical, and not political, regions. Thus, in North 
America we have the cotton and sugar belt, the grain belt, and the 
timber belt. These are interrupted more or less by intervening 
high lands or low lands, but they lie mainly between isothermal 
lines, and this fact should be impressed. When the pupils study 
other grand divisions, it will then be seen that the zones of vegeta- 
tion and of animal life may be traced fairly around the world. In 
the same manner we may lay off mineral productions — not by 
zones or by political divisions, but by areas. A brief lesson will 
show that the distribution of these follow somewhat definite laws. 
In short, the physical geography of the political division should 
not be studied until the student has some knowledge of the general 
geography of the whole region : then the special features of the 
state, county, or district in question may be studied. 

Do not require pupils to describe the meanderings of a river. 
It is enough to give its general direction, or at most, the direction 
of the upper and the lower courses. It is sufficient to say that the 
Missouri flows southeast — it is much better to let the pupils dis- 
cover that all the streams of the region west of the Mississippi have 
a general southeasterly direction. The former is an incidental 
fact ; the latter calls the attention to a general law. It is quite 
proper to study river- meanderings in connection with erosion, 
corrasion, and plain-building ; but even in this connection it is the 
law' which underlies the whole, and not the single individual case 
which teaches the lesson. 

Do not require pupils to memorize definitions except in rare 
instances. Generally speaking, the live teacher will require her 



36 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

pupils to make their own definitions. With moulding-board and 
sand or clay, show the thing itself, and then by cross-questioning 
develop the definition. The child's definition may not be so con- 
cise as that in the text-book, but he will have the correct idea ; 
and a correct idea in faulty language is much better than a gram- 
matically stated definition with no idea at all. A skilful teacher 
may succeed in conducting a recitation in geography and have 
every answer grammatically and rhetorically without flaw. The 
only objection is that no geography is taught. 

The question arises, ' Should there be definitions in the text- 
book ? ' Most certainly there should, but they should be sparingly 
employed in the primary book. Knowledge of the thing neces- 
sarily precedes the definition. The moulding-board and the 
picture are only crutches or supports. Now, until the child has 
learned to walk alone, something in the shape of a crutch or 
support is needful. The picture and the moulded form are 
crutches which the younger pupil must use until he has learned 
to think in words. When he has done this, the artificial sup- 
ports may be discarded, for it does not follow that he should 
use them all through life because he needs them while learning 
to walk. 

The definition belongs properly to the higher or secondary book. 
When the pupil reaches this stage, he is supposed to be able to 
think in words. By this time, if the primary work has been prop- 
erly done, he knows the definition at sight, — perhaps in different 
words from those he sees before him, — and the printed definitions 
of the book are only a series of texts from which many points may 
be drawn. 

Do not require pupils to study all the map questions on the 
printed page. You cannot answer them yourself without referring 
to the book ; and if ever you have been able to do so, it was the 
work of only a few weeks to forget them. Select only those ques- 
tions the answers to which underlie principles. What is still more 
important, arrange the order of the questions so as to develop 
ideas beyond the mere answers. For instance, on a certain page 



INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED WORK 37 

are the questions, 'Where is the Mississippi River? the St. Law- 
rence ? the Mackenzie ? What ranges of mountains in the eastern 
part of North America? the western? Where is the Great Cen- 
tral Plain?' Now let us change the order and reading of these 
questions slightly, and see the difference in their import ' What 
highlands form the western border of North America ? the eastern? 
What is the character of the lands between these highlands — are 
they level or mountainous ? Note the direction of the Mississippi 
River and its branches — the Mackenzie River. What does this 
show about the slope of the land ? Draw a line which shall sepa- 
rate the head waters of the rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico 
from those flowing into the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. Is 
this line a straight east-and-west line ? Can you tell whether it is 
the ridge of a mountain range, or the crest of a swell of land ? It 
is called the Heights of Land. W T hy is it so called? ' Notice that 
questions of the first set are more or less disconnected, and mean 
nothing unless considerably enlarged upon. The arrangement of 
the latter series develops the general structural features of North 
America. The map questions in the best text-books are designed, 
not to represent the proper number or most logical sequence of 
questions, but rather as a reservoir to be drawn from at the discre- 
tion of the teacher. Inasmuch as every teacher has his individ- 
ual methods,, which are more or less modified by circumstances 
and locality, it is better to make a selection of questions rather 
than to require pupils to learn the answers to a host of irrelevant 
ones. 

Furthermore, there are many questions not found in the text 
which will suggest themselves. They are mainly questions which 
depend more on the pupil's understanding of the subject than on 
the fact that he has faithfully studied the day's lesson. Almost 
every text-book question should be flanked by one or more test 
questions which dig deep into the child's knowledge. Besides 
such test questions there are always questions of another kind 
which are very useful in gauging the pupil's perception. These, of 
course, are oral, and should be sprung upon him unawares. For 



38 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

instance, ' Is the greater part of Africa north or south of the equa- 
tor ? ' ' Which is farthest west, New York or Valparaiso ? ' ' Which 
is the farther north, New Orleans or Naples ? ' These are questions 
which are very good tests of the pupil's power of perception, and 
their utility lies in their not having been studied beforehand. It 
goes without saying, that when such questions are employed in the 
manner indicated, the pupil should not be held responsible for an 
incorrect answer. 

There are many occasions when the best work of the teacher 
can be done with the map in hand. By timely-put questions, the 
teacher will lead the pupils to discover many important facts which 
are not only interesting, but valuable. The individual answers to 
the questions may not always be remembered, but the principles 
deduced will not be forgotten. Aside from this an occasional 
question will often disclose the fact that the teacher has not thor- 
oughly done his work. For instance, with the map of the United 
States open before the class, get an expression of opinion as to 
which is the farther west, Cape Mendocino or Cape Flattery. An 
answer to this question will enable the teacher to learn whether 
the pupils have the common habit of measuring longitude from a 
meridian or from the margin of the map. Questions of this char- 
acter will always suggest themselves, and the faithful teacher will 
not hesitate to use them, just as the faithful artisan in every profes- 
sion proves his work as he goes along. 

Do not require every little creek that flows through or near a 
town to be associated with its name. Before the advent of the 
railway there was good reason for associating a city or town with 
the name of any navigable stream which was its commercial out- 
let ; but what earthly use is there in connecting the name of a 
town with an insignificant creek that could not float a row-boat? 
Even now we rarely ever think of Kansas City as situated on the 
Missouri River, or Sacramento on the Sacramento River. The rea- 
son is apparent. Both of these cities are important railway centres, 
neither one having any river commerce of importance. On the 
contrary, it is worth while to associate Cincinnati and New Orleans 



INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED WORK 39 

with the respective rivers on which they are situated, for these are 
pre-eminently river ports. It will not be improper to associate 
Chicago with both foreign and domestic commerce, inasmuch as, 
in addition to its being the largest railway centre in the world, it 
is also the first lake port in the Western Continent. More vessels 
clear from its harbor than from the harbors of New York, Phila- 
delphia, and Baltimore combined. 

Do not make imaginary journeys over impossible routes. There 
might be a case where it were necessary to ship a consignment of 
woollen blankets from Pittsburgh to Jerusalem, but it is not likely 
to occur before the millennium. There are many beaten high- 
ways of travel which are well worth following in imagination, and 
there can be no objection to following these ; indeed, if the teacher 
will fortify himself with the statistics of commerce, obtained di- 
rectly from the office of some extensive shipping merchant, the 
lesson will not only be a practical, but also a valuable one. 

The commercial aspect of geography is a strong one, and 
teachers who will take the trouble to apply to the Department of 
the Interior for the Consular Reports will find in them a mine 
of interesting and useful knowledge. Railway folders and guide- 
books always contain useful information ; and inasmuch as they are 
issued yearly, fresh and fairly accurate information may be found 
in them. The foreign guide-books, such as Baedecker's and 
Hare's ' Walks ' are invaluable to the teacher of geography. They 
contain interesting descriptive, historical, and statistical matter 
that cannot readily be found elsewhere. A set of either of these 
books will be found fully as useful to the teacher as a cyclopedia 
or a geographical gazetteer. 

It is not a good plan to require pupils to memorize the local- 
ities of unimportant places. There are probably not more than 
one hundred cities and towns in the world whose situations need 
be memorized, and of this number there are not many which 
require to be specially located. In general, the memory should 
not be burdened with the position of any geographical feature 
unless there be some point of history, strategic position, or com- 



40 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

mercial industry connected with it ; that is, the place and the 
thing for which it is noted should always go together. Not long 
since a contributor to an educational journal strongly advised that 
the latitude and longitude of every important place be learned, 
and made a part of its descriptive location. It is almost incred- 
ible that such a useless and cruel task should be recommended at 
this late day, but it is hardly probable that any teacher would be 
unwise enough to carry out such a suggestion. 

Exercises in ' bounding ' a country or state are sometimes avail- 
able in fixing the location of a political division, but to extend the 
practice to every petty division is wholly unnecessary. The pupil 
should know what counties and states surround the one in which 
he lives, but it is very easy to carry an exercise of this kind too 
far. Do not force every boundary to be either north, south, east, 
or west. If we consider the irregular shapes of such divisions as 
West Virginia, South Carolina, Italy, or Brazil, it is manifestly 
better to give southeastern, southwestern, or any convenient com- 
posite direction of boundary. Oftener it will require less time to 
mention the surrounding political and natural divisions without any 
reference to their direction. A navigable river or a high mountain 
range will not infrequently be more important to dwell upon as a 
boundary than a political division. 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 41 



V. 

MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING. 

Whenever we wish to learn the position of a place of which we 
know but little, the first impulse is always to consult the map. 
This we do, because in long years of time we have learned the 
true use of the map. The map not only tells us the position of 
the particular locality on the earth's surface, but also its position 
with relation to other places. In early life we seek the picture of 
the thing if we cannot have access to the thing itself; in many in- 
stances the picture is often more graphic than the thing — because 
it enables the mind to view a wider horizon. Thus, even in mature 
years, one can get a better idea of a city or a large area of country 
by consulting a ' bird's-eye view ' than by travelling over the extent 
of country, or by wandering through the streets of the city. 

Now, in the study of geography it is necessary to construct views 
which -shall enable the eye to take in as much as half, or even the 
whole, of the earth's surface at once. This representation is the 
map. The map, of necessity, is not a picture. We cannot delin- 
eate as pictures any except very small areas, and have them true 
to nature. So we are forced to represent nature by the use of 
very arbitrary lines from which we are supposed to reproduce the 
object itself in the mind's eye. In other words, we make what 
we call a map to reproduce a mental image of the thing itself. 

The most vigorous imagination, however, cannot see any resem- 
blance between a round dot and a cluster of houses, or between 
the hachure lines of the map and a range of mountains. There 
may be a slight resemblance in the sinuous black line which serves 
to recall the actual river, but there is nothing in the shore-line of 
the maps to recall the low sandy beach or the wave- beaten cliffs 



42 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

that frown upon the sea. There is even less in the gaudily painted 
colors of the map to suggest the beautiful landscapes of nature. 
But the map, notwithstanding its innate ugliness and convention- 
alities, has a practical side to it which makes it intrinsically more 
valuable than all the picture-lessons we can possibly derive from 
nature, for without it foreign commerce would be almost an impos- 
sibility, and domestic commerce would be greatly crippled. 

It goes without saying, that before the child sees or studies the 
map he should become acquainted with the things which the con- 
ventional lines on the map represent. The various forms and 
elevations of the earth's surface, such as mountains, islands, capes, 
bays, peninsulas, straits, etc., should be studied first from nature. 
Where this is not possible the moulding-board and the picture 
furnish the next best means. Simultaneously with these, the con- 
ventional outline may be drawn on the slate or on the blackboard, 
and thus the pupil takes his first lessons in map-drawing. 

In the class-room, perhaps the most practical map-drawing is 
the hasty off-hand sketching of an area which the needs of the 
recitation demand. In such sketch-map only a general accuracy 
of outline is required, and not more than two or three minutes 
should be permitted in making it. If the pupil has been habitually 
trained to such work in the oral lessons on the moulding-board, 
there will be no difficulty in doing it quickly and with reasonable 
accuracy. The ability to make a rough sketch-map of a given 
area consistently and rapidly implies a great deal. It shows not 
orily that the pupil has the outline photographed in his mind, but 
it is also proof positive of a kind of knowledge that is not readily 
forgotten. Beyond the disciplinary value of such work the out- 
line itself is more valuable in its way than the wall- or the atlas- 
map. A few lines drawn in their proper places will show the 
continental divides which separate the great slopes and basins. 
On such a map these can be seen more clearly than on the atlas- 
map because there is no confusion of details to distract the atten- 
tion from the particular features. There is a score of similar uses 
to which such a sketch-map may be put, any one of which will 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 43 

enable both teacher and pupil to do graphically and vividly what 
must otherwise be imperfectly done. One who has tried this ex- 
pedient will not fail to acknowledge how much time and explana- 
tory talk may be thereby saved. 

The production of finished and artistically drawn maps is an art 
— and a science as well — which the majority of teachers look on 
with disfavor. It certainly is not an essential element in the edu- 
cation of the average pupil, and if such work is done, it would be 
better if done mainly out of school hours. But whatever may be 
the value of a knowledge of chartography to the pupil, it is a neces- 
sity to the teacher. The clumsy, unskilful devices commonly rec- 
ommended as 'aids to map-drawing,' although they often reflect 
credit upon the ingenuity of the teacher, are not testimonials to 
his training in the study of geography. 

Most likely the majority of teachers use a conventional system 
of construction-lines upon which the outlines of the land-area are 
to be drawn. This system sometimes, though rarely, serves a 
good purpose, and where a map is to be hastily sketched it is 
occasionally convenient. As a supplement to a correct system of 
map-drawing it subserves a good purpose. But if the pupil's 
knowledge of the science of map-drawing is to stop at this point, 
it would be better that the knowledge were never acquired ; it is 
always misleading, and usually erroneous. The object and essence 
of the map is that every geographical point should be in its proper 
place. With the ordinary construction-diagram no attempt what- 
ever is made to show anything but an outline similar to the 
map copied. Neither is there anything to show the latitude and 
longitude of places, or even the general position of the area 
charted. For a map of a township, or even a county, such an 
outline might be useful ; but for a large area, it is unscientific, in- 
complete, and erroneous. 

Now and then some one discovers that a construction-diagram 
which answers admirably for, we will say, a map of North America 
as it appears in one book, will not answer at all for the same map 
as it is given in another. When such an awkward discovery is 



44 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

made, one of the maps (usually the one to which the construction- 
diagram will not fit) is declared incorrect. 

That construction-lines and diagrams are a necessity in map- 
drawing is certainly true, but why not use the ones originally 
designed for the purpose, and without which a map is useless ? In 
other words, why not use the parallels and meridians themselves ? 
They were devised for this purpose and, except in mariners' charts, 
have little or no other use. The professional map- draughtsman 
uses them and does not ever think of using any other device. 

The advantage of using parallels and meridians is twofold. It is 
fully as easy to lay them off on paper as it is to draw a meaning- 
less construction- diagram. The map when thus drawn is con- 
sistent, and expresses not only position, but also direction and 
relative distance. Without the parallels and meridians, it shows 
nothing but outline ; and if the outline were one of a country or 
a region not well known, it might be difficult to decide how the 
map was to be read, or in which direction were the cardinal 
points. 

The chief difficulty is that both teacher and pupil are afraid to 
attempt drawing the parallels and meridians, for fear that they will 
not have the same appearance as those of the map copied. This 
fear may be dismissed with the assertion that they need not be 
similar. They may be drawn as straight lines if one chooses to 
draw them thus, and if they are properly numbered the map may 
be charted upon them. The result will be a consistent map, 
although in shape it may not absolutely resemble the one copied. 

Pupils and teachers have been taught, or have imbibed the idea, 
that a map must of necessity be an exact outline of the continent, 
grand division, or state. This is a matter which must be unlearned. 
A map cannot, of necessity, be an exact outline, because it is im- 
possible to represent the outline of a convex or rounded surface 
on a flat surface. The map-draughtsman must therefore be con- 
tent with making the map as nearly correct as circumstances will 
permit, and must lay out his parallels and meridians accordingly. 
The platting of these is called ' projecting the map.' There are 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 



45 



^- — 



50° 




many projections used in map-drawing, but there are four which 
are very commonly used, — the Mercator, the conic, the polyconic, 
and the globular projection. 

The Mercator Projec- 
tion. — This projection re- 
ceives its name from Kauf- 
mann, 1 a geographer who 
first employed it in the 
charting of sailing-routes. 

In the Mercator projec- 
tion the earth is considered 
a cylinder, on the convex 
surface of which the out- 
lines of the continents are 
drawn. If, now, we con- 
ceive the surface to be 
unrolled and laid flat, the 
result is a map projected 
on the Mercator plan. 

But the north pole of the 
earth, which in reality is a 
point, becomes, in the Mer- 
cator projection, a circle 
equal in size to the circle 
of the equator. The land 
masses situated in high lati- 
tudes appear greatly dis- 
torted, therefore, in width. 
In order to obviate this, the 
distance between parallels 
constantly increases as the 
latitude increases, as will 

be seen in the accompanying diagram. These distances are 
not taken hap-hazard, to suit convenience, but are determined 

1 Kaufmann is the German word for merchant, which in Latin is mercator. 




Method by which Mercator Charts are projected. 



46 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

for a purpose, and their positions calculated with mathematical 
precision. 

Technically speaking, the distance of each parallel from the 
equator is equal to the tangent of the angle of latitude. Let us 
imagine that UXYZ is a hollow cylinder of paper surrounding 
a terrestrial globe PQR. From O, the centre of the globe, lay 
off angles of io°, 20 , 30 , etc., and draw lines until they meet the 
side of the paper cylinder. Now the points where these lines 
meet the surface of the cylinder will be the distances of the 
respective parallels from the equator. When we unroll the paper 
cylinder, it will be about t,j times the length of AB, the diameter 
of the globe. For all practical purposes the maps projected on 
the Mercator plan are limited to 8o° N. and 6o° S. latitude, as the 
land and all the navigable waters of the earth are situated between 
these parallels. 

The chief objection to this plan of projecting a map is, that 
where large areas are to be shown, the size of those portions situ- 
ated in high latitudes is greatly exaggerated. This objection, how- 
ever, fails when small areas are to be charted, and for state and 
county maps it is an excellent projection. It is the only conven- 
ient projection, too, in which the entire surface of the earth can 
be shown on a single, continuous map. 

Its greatest advantage lies in its use as a sailing-chart ; for it is in 
maps of this projection only that all directions are measured in 
straight lines, and that parallel lines have the same direction in all 
parts of the map. Without the Mercator chart, deep-sea sailing 
would be out of the question, for any navigator who was not a good 
mathematician could not calculate the complex curves which on 
ordinary maps would represent straight lines on the surface of the 
earth. The 'commercial' maps of the world, which now form a 
part of most common-school geographies, are excellent specimens 
of the Mercator projection, although not always correctly pro- 
jected. 

It need not be inferred from this that the chartographer docs 
not know how to project them. The reason is, that a correctly 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 47 

projected map, to include all the surface between 8o° N. to 8o° S., 
if a two-page map is required, would be about three feet in length 
from top to bottom. So it is customary to reduce the distance 
between parallels by any convenient but arbitrary scale, the latter 
depending upon the size of the page. 

The Conic Projection. — The conic projection represents a 
part of the earth as drawn on the surface of a cone. Imagine a 
cone (or a part of the cone) covered with paper, on which the 
parallels are drawn parallel to the base of the cone, and the merid- 
ians from the apex to the base. If now the paper be removed 
and spread flat, we shall have a tolerably correct idea of the conic 
projection. This form of projection and the various modifications 
of it are much used in charting those grand divisions and areas 
which lie in the northern hemisphere. Obviously, the distortion 
will be the greatest towards polar and equatorial latitudes. If we 
bend the paper into a cone, and place the latter over a globe 
which shall just go inside of it, we can see what parts of the map 
are distorted or incorrect in outline. Along the circle where the 
sphere and cone touch, there will be no distortion. In polar lati- 
tudes there will be a north and south exaggeration, and in equa- 
torial latitudes, an east and west enlargement. Where the area to 
be charted extends well into equatorial latitudes, the meridians in- 
stead of being straight lines are commonly curved inwardly so as to 
prevent too much lateral distortion. Maps of Asia and Europe are 
usually thus conventionalized. In fact, two of the best chartog- 
raphers in the United States use ship-curves for projecting the 
meridians in the maps of these grand divisions. In using the 
ship-curve instead of the arc of a circle, their judgment is good. 
In a projection thus made, the northern regions, where there are 
but few details to be charted, are slightly contracted, while the 
southern parts, in which the details are numerous, are slightly 
enlarged. The parallels of a conic projection are always concen- 
tric arcs with the pole as a centre. The conic projection is one 
of the most convenient, and in many respects the best, for pupils' 
work. It is easily made, and requires no apparatus more costly 



48 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

than a pair of dividers with a long leg. The meridians may be 
straight lines, and the parallels, arcs drawn from the apex of the 




A Conic Projection. 

cone as a centre. The outline on p. 47 conveys a practical idea 
of this form of projection. 

The Polyconic Projection. — The polyconic projection is the 
one adopted by the United States Coast Survey. It is, generally 
speaking, more accurate than any other, inasmuch as it gives a 
rather more correct outline to the surface charted. In this pro- 
jection the parallels are arcs of circles drawn from centres which 
recede from the north pole as the latitude decreases. The merid- 
ians are arcs of circles. This is a difficult projection to make, 
and should not be attempted by the pupil. It is a favorite projec- 
tion for the map of North America. 

The Globular Projection. — The maps of the hemispheres 
which are found at the beginning of most geographies are drawn 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 49 

on what is commonly called the globular projection. It was first 
planned by de la Hire about two hundred years ago, and a better 




A Polyconic Projection. 

one for the purpose was never made. Let us imagine a glass 
globe on which the parallels and meridians have been drawn, to 
be cut in two through the poles, and a sheet of half- transparent 
paper fastened over the cut edges. In the accompanying cut 
ABCDE is the hemisphere, and ADCE the sheet of paper. The 
observer stands directly in front of the flat side at a distance a 
little greater than the length of the axis of the sphere, the eye 
being at O, on the level of the equator. Now as one looks at the 
parallels 1 with the eye in the position shown at O, they seem to 
be curved lines ; and if we could have each one drawn as it seems 
to fall on the flat surface ADCE, we should have a set of parallels 
as seen in the next figure. The meridians are usually drawn at 
equal distances apart. The expert chartographer does not need 

1 The meridians are omitted in order to avoid crowding the figure with a 
confusion of lines. 



50 



HINTS TO TEACHERS 
A 




Method by which Globular Maps are projected. 

to take this trouble to locate the position or to find the curvature 
of the parallels ; he can calculate either much more easily. 

In a projection of this kind, the distortion is chiefly at the mar- 
gin of the map. On a globe the parallels must of course be equi- 
distant, but in our globular projection they are much farther apart 
at the margins than along the central meridian. Not unfrequently 
the question arises, ' Why is there not a scale of miles on maps of 
the hemispheres ? ' Such a question is readily answered when we 
recognize the fact of this marginal exaggeration. A scale of miles 
which would be accurate on the central meridian would be very 
inaccurate at the margin. To represent a fairly correct scale each 
unit must be 1.57 as great for the marginal as for the central 
meridian. 

It is evident that directions north and south, or east and 
west, are measured respectively along the meridians and par- 
allels, no matter what may be the direction of these lines on 
the map. A straight line on the map must, therefore, in nearly 
every case be a curved line on the globe ; it becomes not only 
a great inconvenience, but practically an impossibility for any but 
an expert mathematician to use such maps for sailing- charts. But 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 



51 



inasmuch as a map projected for use as a sailing-chart has such 
exaggerated outlines as to be almost worthless for everything ex- 
cept rhumb lines and accuracy of direction, we must gracefully 
submit to the fact that two kinds of maps are necessary, — one for 
landsmen, and the other for seamen. We must also yield to the 
fact that while both are consistent, neither one is accurate, and 
that a perfect map cannot be made until we have a flat earth. 

One of the difficulties in trying to fit a round earth to a flat 
map is frequently encountered in the United States Land Office. 



90 SO 



EQUATOR 




90 80 

The Completed Projection. 



According to law a township must be bounded east and west by 
meridians, and must be six miles square. Now this is simply an 
impossibility. If, for instance, we survey two township lines north- 
ward from the 40th to the 41st parallel, we shall find that they 
have approached each other and are about two-thirds of a mile 
nearer at their northern than at their southern limits. In the sys- 
tem of land surveys adopted by the United States, standard par- 
allels are surveyed every few miles apart, and these are taken as 



52 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

bases for new township surveys. The parallel taken for a new 
base is called a ' correction line.' 

Occasionally the cry is raised that the maps of our geographies 
are objectionable because they contain too many details. Cer- 
tainly the map should not contain so much matter as to be con- 
fusing, and all unnecessary lines and schemes are a source of evil 
rather than good. It is true that not every indentation of coast 
can be accurately shown, but it is equally certain that the char- 
acter of the coast may be delineated ; and if the map shows no 
difference between the coast- charting of Maine and Florida, it is 
not a true map. Mountains can be shown only in a conventional 
way, yet the character of highlands and canons can be distinctively 
portrayed. If the hachure lines representing a mountain range, 
a plateau, a line of cliffs, and a canon show no difference in texture, 
the map is untrue. It is a mechanical impossibility to enter the 
names of cities and towns on a map of a section of states, sys- 
tematically, and in ratio to the population. The chartographer can 
only submit to what he cannot help, and use his best judgment. 
Now and then some one blindly proposes to introduce the names 
of a few of the larger cities only on each section map. Such a 
scheme is not only unnecessary, but misleading. It is unnecessary 
because in all the standard text-books of geography the greater 
centres of population are designated by larger type or by special 
symbols. It is misleading because it is untruthful. There is no 
more instructive lesson to be derived from the ordinary map than 
that shown by the distribution of population over an area of coun- 
try, and the wise teacher will not fail to recognize this feature. 
Aside from this, the text-book map has a very important use as a 
reference map, and if all but the salient features are removed, the 
map has no value whatever beyond its class-room use. 

Where maps containing only essential features are required they 
would best be drawn by the pupils themselves. For this purpose 
it is a good plan to take advantage of outline maps — that is, maps 
which have already been projected. The details, whether physical, 
political, or historical may then be filled in progressively, using a 



MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-MAKING 53 

different sheet for each purpose. The plan of thus ' editing ' a 
map will be found an invaluable discipline to the pupil. Indeed, 
it is doubtful if a better plan to judge graphically of the pupil's 
progress could be devised. 

Fortunately the maps of all the leading geographies are excel- 
lent ones. In nearly every instance they have been prepared 
either by Mr. Jacob Wells, of New York, or Mr. W. H. Holmes, of 
Philadelphia. Both of these gentlemen are widely known as 
geographers and chartographers. They have no superiors in their 
professional work, and whatever may be the short-comings of the 
maps of text-books, the fault rests with the employers and not 
the chartographer. 



54 HINTS TO TEACHERS 



VI. 

HINTS ON TEACHING MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

While mathematical geography is out of the question with 
primary classes, pupils of grammar and high school grades should 
be well grounded in those principles of mathematical and astronom- 
ical geography which are essential to the study of physiography. 
Text-books on physical geography are sometimes unjustly criticised 
because they contain prefatory chapters on astronomy. If every 
pupil could receive a course of instruction in astronomy before 
beginning the study of physical geography, such a criticism would 
be well taken. But in the great majority of schools, the only 
information the pupil ever obtains on this subject is drawn from 
school text-books of geography, and, in view of this fact, the 
introduction of the few elementary principles of astronomy is not 
only pertinent, but essential. 1 

About the only essential apparatus needed in the study of 
mathematical geography is a good terrestrial globe. It is better 
to have an eight- or a twelve-inch globe mounted in a frame so as 
to show the plane of the ecliptic, but if this cannot be procured, 
a cheap globe mounted on a wire — one can be purchased for 
twenty-five cents — can be made to answer every purpose. A pair 
of compasses or dividers, with pencil and pen points will also be 
useful. One or two croquet balls painted white (with a color 
mixed with turpentine or benzine) will make a good surface on 
which to draw the various circles and project the outlines of the 
divisions of land and water. Not all the exercises suggested 
need be carried out by each member of the class. Many of them 

1 This is also true of elementary geology. A knowledge of the elements 
of these two studies is absolutely necessary to an understanding of physical 
geography. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 55 

may be made general exercises. Pupils fitting themselves for 
teachers, and teachers of ungraded schools, where but little 
apparatus is ever found, will do well to carry out the suggestions 
for extemporizing suitable apparatus. In very many instances 
home-made apparatus is better than that which is purchased. It 
is less complicated, and because less complicated, the essential 
principles are presented in a simpler and bolder manner. Besides, 
a teacher who can contrive his own apparatus has a comprehensive 
knowledge, a. grip on the subject in hand, that can be acquired in 
no other manner. The discipline is just as advantageous in other 
studies as in geography. It is impossible to discipline the mind 
or cultivate skill in one direction without a corresponding develop- 
ment in others. 

It will be unnecessary, perhaps, to use all the exercises given. 
The real ability of the teacher becomes manifest in judgment of 
selection ; superfluous proof does not strengthen conviction, and 
over-illustration is often wearisome rather than disciplinary. 

Why the Earth is Round. — The mutual and equal attraction 
of the molecules of a substance have a tendency to make a body 
spherical in shape, when the molecules move upon one another 
freely. Thus drops of rain falling through the air are nearly or 
quite spherical. A drop of any liquid resting on a surface which 
it will not wet — as a drop of water on a greasy surface — takes a 
spheroidal shape. Globules of quicksilver are almost perfect 
spheres. Molten lead falling from the top of a tower reaches the 
bottom in the shape of spheres. A small quantity of oil sus- 
pended in a mixture of water and alcohol becomes a nearly perfect 
sphere, all because of the equal and mutual attraction of their 
respective molecules. In the same manner, when the earth existed 
in a fluid state, mutual attraction drew the molecules together, 
giving it nearly the form of a sphere. Under the operation of the 
same law, we find that nearly all the heavenly bodies are charac- 
terized by a spheroidal shape. 

It is well known, however, that the earth and many of the other 
heavenly bodies are slightly flattened along the axis of rotation, 



56 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

having the form usually known as an oblate spheroid. The man- 
ner in which the earth may have acquired this shape can be read- 
ily shown by thrusting a stick eight or ten inches long through a 
round ball of wet clay and whirling it between the palms of the 
hands. A few whirls are sufficient to make the ball of clay bulge 
midway between the poles. 

Proofs of the Earths Shape. — The circumnavigation of the 
globe by mariners is too well known to need any description in 
these pages. It is not a bad idea, however, to follow the voyage of 
Magellan's ship or that of Francis Drake on a globe, showing the 
irregular routes taken by these sailors. A route frequently taken 
by tourists nowadays is as follows: New York to Liverpool by 
steamer ; railway to London and Dover, England ; steamer to 
Calais, France ; railway via Paris, Geneva, Milan, and Rome to 
Brindisi, Italy ; steamer via Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal (touch- 
ing at Alexandria and Cairo) to Bombay ; railway across India to 
Calcutta ; steamer to Hong Kong and Canton, China, and thence 
to Yokohama, Japan ; steamer to Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, and 
thence to San Francisco, Cal. ; railway to New York. The min- 
imum time in which this trip can be made is sixty-seven days. 

The proof that vessels gradually sink out of sight is easier to 
demonstrate in theory than in practice. It requires a calm sea 
and a good field-glass to be satisfactorily made. It is most satis- 
factory when an observation can be made on several vessels at 
different distances from the shore. The effect is heightened when 
an observation is made, first at the sea-level, and then from the 
top of a cliff fifty or one hundred feet high. 

The proof as demonstrated by a circular horizon is too difficult 
except with advanced pupils. In demonstrating this, it may be of 
service to cut sections from a sphere, from an oval body such as a 
lemon, and from an irregular solid. It may thus be shown that 
the sphere is the only solid whose sections are a/ways circular, 
and because the plane of every horizon 1 on the earth is a circle, it 
follows that the earth is spherical in shape. 

1 The astronomical horizon is here referred to. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 57 

One of the most instructive proofs of the curved surface of the 
earth has never been mentioned in our text-books until quitt 
recently. If an engineer's level be sighted over a pond when the 
water is very still, a slightly apparent curvature is at once notice- 
able. Place the telescope at the height of exactly four feet and 
sight it at a stake one mile away. The cross-wires of the telescope 
will strike a point in the stake, — not four feet, but four feet and 
eight inches above the water's level. That is, the surface of the 
earth has curved away from a horizontal line to the amount of eight 
inches. At the distance of two miles the curvature amounts to 32 
inches; at a distance of three miles, 72 inches; four miles, 128 
inches ; five miles, 200 inches. 

A very instructive demonstration which can occasionally be tried 
by pupils who live near the seashore has been mentioned by 
Professor Edward Jackson. Let three targets be fixed a mile 
apart on the beach at a height, say, of four feet from the water's 
level. If now the telescope of the level be sighted along the line 
connecting the tops of the two end targets, the top of the middle 
one will be found to be above the line. This experiment is very 
striking. 

Another proof which may be occasionally discussed with older 
pupils is the nearly uniform weight of a body at all parts of the 
earth's surface. If the earth were not spherical, the weight of a 
body would vary, because on the surface of the earth the same 
body grows heavier as it approaches the earth's centre. As a 
matter of fact, a given weight is a little heavier near the poles than 
in equatorial regions, and this variation in weight has been indi- 
rectly used in determining the amount of the polar flattening. 

The testimony furnished by eclipses of the moon is one of the 
most conclusive proofs of the earth's roundness. It will be an 
instructive exercise to project on the wall the shadows of differ- 
ently shaped bodies, such as a cube, a cylinder, an egg, and a ball, 
and compare the shapes of their respective shadows. Note that 
the cylinder and the egg may sometimes project circular shadows, 
but that the sphere can project no other. This proof and the pre- 



58 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

ceding one are regarded as the most conclusive of all. The former 
is strictly mathematical, the latter a physical demonstration. 

One of the questions which usually confronts the teacher is, 
' How can the earth be round when there are so many mountains 
and valleys on its surface ? ' This is a difficult question to dispose 
of in a manner which fully satisfies the pupil. One can easily 
comprehend the vastness of a mountain, but it is impossible to 
compare the mountain with the whole earth. It is not a bad 
idea to compare the surface of the earth with that of an orange. 
The pupil will not object to calling the orange round in spite of 
its roughness, and yet if the earth could be reduced to the size of 
the orange, the elevations and depressions would be only about 
one-tenth as high as those of the orange. A grain of sand y^ of 
an inch in height would proportionately represent Mount Everest 
on a globe twelve inches in diameter. 

The polar diameter of the earth is 7899.2 miles; the equatorial 
diameter is 7925.5 miles, a difference of 26.4 miles. On a globe 
one foot in diameter the flattening would amount to less than g 1 ^- 
of an inch. Multiplying the polar and equatorial diameters by 
3.1416, we have respectively 24,817 and 24,902 miles as the polar 
and the equatorial circumferences. 

Latitude and Longitude. — The first lessons in latitude and 
longitude should be illustrated upon the globe. A few questions 
will convince the pupils that locating or describing the position of 
a place on a plain globe would be an impossibility. The numbered 
lines which we call parallels and meridians are as necessary as the 
names and numbers of the streets of a large city. Skilful question- 
ing will develop the idea that two sets of lines are necessary, and 
that just as a city is divided into squares, so we must imagine the 
earth similarly divided. One set of lines are drawn through the 
poles, and another at right angles to these. We draw the merid- 
ians through the poles for convenience only. Any other point 
could be made to answer, but it would be very inconvenient and 
confusing. One could make a carriage wheel with the spokes 
radiating from some other point than the centre, but it would be a 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 59 

very awkward wheel ; we therefore find it most convenient to 
draw the meridians through the poles, because the latter are the 
ends of the axis on which the earth rotates. It will be a good 
plan to draw a set of meridians and parallels on the plain globe. 
It is unnecessary to confuse pupils by the usual finely drawn dis- 
tinction between meridians and meridian circles. The main point 
to be inculcated is that the meridian extends from pole to pole. 

The first parallel to be drawn on the globe should be the 
equator ; and it is well to call the attention to the fact that it is 
so called because it separates the surface of the globe into equal 
parts. The other parallels may then be drawn — four or eight, as 
convenience may suggest — on each side of the equator. 

In discussing the method of numbering the parallels and merid- 
ians, the teacher should explain how angles are measured — that 
is, upon the arc of a circle. Draw any angle on the blackboard, 
and from the point where the lines meet as a centre, draw the 
arcs of several concentric circles. Develop the fact that although 
the arcs of circles differ in length, yet they measure the same 
amount of angular divergence. 

It is a good plan to explain that the division of the circle into 
360 degrees is a matter of convenience only. Any other number 
would have answered, but 360 was chosen because it has so many 
exact divisors. Having explained this, it will be well to emphasize 
the fact that a degree does not signify a fixed length, but (in 
geography) a three hundred and sixtieth part of any circumfer- 
ence — whether great or small. On the earth's surface a degree 
measured along the equator has a length of 69.16 miles. This 
value decreases with increasing latitude until at the poles it is o. 
It will not be amiss to drill the class in the value of fractional parts 
of the circle. Thus there are 90 degrees in the quadrant, and 1S0 
in the half-circle. It is also a good exercise to drill pupils in the 
division of the quadrant into arcs of 10, 15, 20, 22^, 30, and 45 
degrees. Having done this, it will be easy to develop the fact that 
the poles are each 90 degrees from the equator, and because each 
pole is at the farthest point from the equator, its latitude cannot 



60 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

be greater than 90 , as we now measure it. This may be shown on 
any terrestrial globe. Try to locate a point in latitude ioo° N., 
along the Greenwich meridian ; this distance will fall ten degrees 
beyond the pole and reach the 80th parallel. The two points will 
be 100 degrees apart, but the latitude of the point designated will 
be 8o°. 

The reason for beginning to number the parallels of latitude at 
the poles is obviously a matter of convenience. But why, it may 
be asked, should one take the meridian that~passes through Green- 
wich, an obscure village near London, as a point from which to 
reckon longitude? This also is a matter of convenience. The 
calculation of the longitude of a place is simple in theory, but very 
difficult in fact, and it is done in ordinary cases by a measure- 
ment of the positions of one or more of the heavenly bodies, — 
the sun, the moon, or one of the stars. In order to do this it is 
necessary to have an astronomical observatory equipped with com- 
plete and delicate instruments for star measurement, inasmuch as 
the relative positions of the sun, moon, and stars must be accurately 
determined beforehand for every hour of the day, and every day of 
the year. The English people, because of their vast commercial 
interests, long ago recognized the necessity of establishing the 
latitude and longitude of all prominent localities and coast-lines, 
and so, to aid the work, an observatory was established at Green- 
wich many years ago. It was, therefore, most convenient to take 
the meridian passing through this observatory as a reckoning-point. 
Longitude is also sometimes reckoned from Washington, Paris, and 
Berlin, but for all practical purposes the Greenwich meridian is 
taken as the standard the world over. 

It is well to call attention to the fact that while parallels and 
meridians are imaginary lines on the earth, they are real lines on 
maps and globes. They are essential elements of the map, and 
without them a map has no meaning. It is a good plan to exer- 
cise pupils in finding the latitude and longitude of a dozen or more 
places in order to make sure that they understand how to deter- 
mine them accurately from the ordinary map. The margin of the 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 61 

map is usually ruled with fine parallel lines on which the subdi- 
visions of the degree or the distance between parallels and merid- 
ians are shown. Inasmuch as these are rarely the same for any 
two maps, it is proper to spend a few minutes in learning how to 
find the value of the subdivisions. 

While pupils should be taught to determine latitude and longi- 
tude on the maps with readiness, it is a waste of time and energy 
to memorize the latitude and longitude of more than a very few 
localities. Every pupil should know the latitude and longitude of 
the town in which he lives, and the extent of latitude and longitude 
of his own state and country. It is well to use the conven- 
tional methods of expressing position which mariners and geogra- 
phers have adopted ; thus, the position of Washington is Lat. $8° 
39' N., Long. 77 3' W. The live teacher may also find many 
instructive questions of a general nature which will do much 
towards fixing the relative position of localities. For instance, a 
little skill in questioning will develop the fact that the central 
point of the United States (exclusive of Alaska) is near the inter- 
section of the 40th parallel and 97th meridian; that, including 
Alaska, the United States extends from Long. 67 W. to Long. 
1 7 2 E., its central meridian passing near San Francisco; that 
most of South America is south of the equator, and most of Africa 
is north of it ; that the northern boundaries of New York and 
Wyoming are midway between the equator and the north pole ; 
that Europe is the only grand division which does not extend to 
the torrid zone, etc. Exercises in the comparative latitude of 
places are often valuable, because our notions are so frequently at 
variance with the facts of the case. For instance, we almost 
always associate Italy with low latitude, when, in fact, it corre- 
sponds with that of the northern half of the United States. Paris 
is near the parallel which forms the northern boundary of the 
United States ; and St. Petersburg is farther north than Sitka, 
Alaska ; Calcutta, Canton, and Havana are all quite near the tropic 
of Cancer ; and Shanghai, New Orleans, and Cairo are all near the 
30th parallel. A casual investigation of the map upon which a lesson 



62 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

has been assigned will always disclose a number of interesting and 
surprising facts. It must be kept in mind, however, that in an 
exercise of this kind the questions chosen should be of such a 
character as to develop principles rather than disconnected facts. 

Motions of the Earth. — The earth has several motions. 

It rotates or spins on its axis. 

It revolves around the sun. 

With the sun and the other members of the solar system, it 
forever sweeps on through space. 

The axis of the earth, like that of a sleeping top, moves in an 
elliptical curve which is subject to constant variations. 

The first and second of these motions are important in the 
study of geography ; the others concern the study of astronomy 
only. It is well to mention them, however, if the pupils are ad- 
vanced, but it is hardly a proper subject for lengthy discussion. 

The essential apparatus required consists of a globe and a lamp. 
If the room can be darkened, the experiments will be much more 
effective. An argand or student's lamp with a silvered reflector is 
by far the best, but an ordinary lamp, or a candle will answer. 

It is well to emphasize the fact that the earth's motions are 
practically constant and tolerably uniform in velocity, differing in 
this respect from anything that has been or can be made by the 
ingenuity of man. The most delicately poised wheel when re- 
volved will come to a stop unless force is applied to keep it in 
motion ; but the earth, and, so far as we know, every other heav- 
enly body, is in never-ceasing motion. 

Some of the questions which almost always confront the teacher 
are, ' What makes the earth spin upon its axis ? ' ' Why does 
it forever whirl about the sun ? ' ' Why does not the earth spin 
more and more slowly and finally stop, just as a top does? ' The 
answers to most of these questions cannot be given with certainty, 
because they involve knowledge that reaches beyond the limits of 
modern science. To the possibilities of how these motions might 
have been brought about, there are added certain probabilities so 
strong that it will be well to discuss them. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 63 

There are many reasons for believing that the sun, earth, and 
all the other planets formerly existed as a mass of vapor. As the 
mass of vapor cooled, it also contracted in bulk ) and this could 
take place only by the movement of the atoms which composed 
the mass, towards the centre of gravity. But such a movement of 
atoms always produces a rotatory motion. We notice this in the 
case of whirlwinds and whirlpools. The telescope also reveals it 
in the case of those masses of star-mist which we call nebula. 
Many of them are in the form of concentric rings, and several 
show a spiral structure, which could result only from a vorticose 
motion. As the contraction of the mass proceeded, the rotatory 
motion would finally become so great that some of the outer parts 
of the mass must be thrown off, thus forming the planets and their 
satellites. Because of the rotatory motion of the whole mass, any 
fragments which might be thrown off would also acquire the 
similar motion. Thus a solar system and its train of planets 
might be formed. 

Such a description of the formation of the solar system, it must 
be remembered, is not science, but theory. But it may also be 
added that the theory rests on such strong circumstantial evidence 
that astronomers and geologists regard it substantially as a truth. 
The following are some of the principal links of evidence. 

The telescope reveals masses of nebulous matter in various stages 
of condensation, in several instances showing concentric and spiral 
structure. Such conditions of matter strongly indicate rotatory 
motion. 

The spectroscope proves that the same chemical elements which 
are found in the earth also compose the sun. 

The sun turns on its axis from west to east, and so do all the 
planets. So far as is known this is true of the various satellites. 

All the planets revolve about the sun x from west to east, and 
the planes of their orbits have, in all but two or three instances, 
only a slight difference in the angle of inclination. 

1 More accurately, the sun and all the other members of the solar system 
revolve about a common centre of gravity. This centre of gravity is always 
very near the sun, if not quite within its mass. 



64 BINTS TO TEACHERS 

In discussing questions of this character, judgment and caution 
must be used. Pupils who are fitting themselves for teachers, how- 
ever, should by all means become acquainted with those theories, 
pro and con, which may be found in recent treatises of astronomy. 

The question of why the motion of the earth is practically per- 
petual, while that of the top is not, may be more easily answered. 
The top has a great deal of friction to check it ; the earth has but 
very little. A top spun under water will retain its motion hardly 
long enough to make a single revolution ; in the air and with the 
peg on a smooth surface, it may remain spinning several minutes ; 
in a vacuum its motion will continue much longer, and, could we 
destroy all friction, its motion would be perpetual. The only fric- 
tion that tends to retard the earth is mainly that of the tide-waves, 
and this is counterbalanced by a contraction in bulk, arising from 
loss of heat. The same is true of the rotation of the earth around 
the sun : there is no friction to retard it, and consequently its 
velocity remains unchecked. 

Not infrequently some pupil will ask, 'Why does not the air 
check the motion of the earth ? ' It will be well to forestall such 
a question by emphasizing the fact that the air is a part of the 
earth, and moves with it. 

The Rotation of the Earth. — The most apparent effect of 
the earth's rotation on its axis is the succession of day and night. 
It involves necessarily the phenomenon of the apparent revolution 
of the sun, moon, and stars in an opposite direction, and it deter- 
mines the respective positions of axis, poles, equator, etc. 

Hold the globe before the lamp or before a ray of sunlight 
reflected horizontally by a small mirror. By questioning, develop 
the fact that only one-half of the earth can be lighted by the sun 
at the same time. 

Attach a wafer or a bit of paper to the globe, and slowly rotate 
it from west to east. The wafer reaches the lighter half of the 
earth, and is again turned to the darkened part. Develop from 
this the succession of day and of night — of sunrise and sunset ; 
half-way between, it is either midday or midnight. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 65 

Fasten another wafer to the globe, say, ninety degrees distant 
in longitude from the first. Show from this that places, one east, 
or west of the other, cannot have sunrise or sunset, noon or mid- 
night, at the same time. New Orleans and Calcutta are about 
1 80 degrees distant in longitude. When it is noon at the former, 
what time is it at the latter place ? What is the difference in time ? 
London 1 is 90 degrees east of New Orleans ; at which place will 
an observer see the sun first? How far must the earth turn before 
the sun can be seen at New Orleans? What time will it be at 
London when it is sunrise at New Orleans ? 

It should be impressed on the pupils that, practically, the day 
is the unit of time, and that the division of the day into 24 hours 
is one of convenience only. The same is true of the division of 
the hour into minutes, and of the minute into seconds. It is a 
good idea to drill pupils in the value of the second and the minute. 
A pendulum 39 inches in length vibrates seconds, and one of the 
proper length may easily be constructed and adjusted so as to 
beat seconds very accurately. Good observers train themselves to 
estimate short intervals of time with marvellous accuracy. 

From the previous exercise or a similar one the teacher may 
construct an equation of time, having developed the fact that the 
earth makes a complete rotation of 360 degrees in 24 hours of 
time. The following may answer, but the teacher would best fol- 
low his own methods : — 

24 h. = 360 . 
1 h. (60 min.) = 15 . 

4 min. = i° (60'). 
1 min. = 15'. 

Pupils who have completed the ordinary course in arithmetic will 
easily wrestle with problems involving subdivisions of the degree, 
but for classes beginning the advanced or grammar school geogra- 

1 On account of the high latitude of London, it may be well — it certainly 
will be more accurate — to specify the time, as 6 o'clock and 12 o'clock, in- 
stead of using the terms sunrise, noon, and sunset. 



66 



HINTS TO TEACHERS 



phy it will be better to confine the exercises to problems which 
involve multiples of fifteen degrees. Before leaving the exercise, 
it will be a good plan to place the wafers at different latitudes in 
the same meridian, and show by experiment that all places at the 
same meridian have the same clock time. 

Perhaps the most instructive lessons on the earth's daily motion 
may be learned from the stars. The first effort in this direction 
should be to acquaint the pupil with the constellation Ursa Major, 
more commonly known as the ' Dipper.' The two stars forming the 
front side — that is, opposite the handle — are called ' pointers,' and 




Apparent Daily Motion of Sun — Observer at Lat, 45°. 1 

a line extended from bottom to top through these stars points very 
nearly to the north, or pole star. By carefully watching the stars in 
this part of the heavens on a winter's night, we shall find that the 
pole star is apparently stationary, but the stars which appear to be 
near seem to be revolving about it. By watching for six hours, we 
shall find that these stars have apparently travelled one-fourth the 
distance around the pole star. We shall find, moreover, the stars 
near the poles never pass below the horizon, while those at a dis- 

1 This and the following cuts are taken by permission from Professor Jack- 
son's ' Earth in Space.' 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 67 

tance of 40 degrees or more (in the latitude of New York) appear 
to rise and set just as the sun does. 

It may be well to discuss the velocity with which a body moves, 
as affected by the earth's rotation. The velocity of a point at the 
equator can be easily computed ; as it travels at the rate of about 
25,000 miles in 24 hours, a little more than 1000 miles per hour. 
At the poles the velocity becomes o, and at intermediate latitudes 
it varies between the rates mentioned. A moment's consideration 
of these values is sufficient to show the most conservative pupil 
that the earth is not whirling about in the air, — an idea which, sin- 
gularly, becomes firmly fixed in the minds of many pupils. It is 
hardly necessary to add that with the earth whirling at the rate of 
1000 miles per hour, we should have a constant breeze in equato- 
rial regions about ten times as strong as the wildest hurricane. 
The difference of velocity between equatorial and polar regions 
might be discussed with classes ; for, as the pupil will afterwards 
learn, it has much to do with the direction of constant winds. 
Except with mature pupils, however, it would be hardly wise to go 
too minutely into this part of the subject until it is taken up in 
physical geography. 

In the preceding exercises the teacher may use his judgment as 
to the position of the earth's axis. It may be advisable at first to 
hold the globe so that the light from the lamp or from the sun 
reaches from pole to pole. Before leaving the subject, however, it 
is essential to impress the fact that the position and direction of the 
earth's axis have much to do with the condition of the earth in 
respect to length of day, temperature, and change of seasons. This 
may be readily seen by the following experiments. Incline the globe 
so that the north pole points towards the light and revolve it. By 
questioning, develop the fact that the northern hemisphere receives 
all the light, while the southern hemisphere is in perpetual darkness. 
Elicit the fact, also, that the light and heat would be most intense 
at the pole and least intense at the equator. Show that the sun 
will always be directly overhead at the pole, and that it will appear 
to skim along the horizon at the equator. Before leaving the ex- 



68 



HINTS TO TEACHERS 



ercise, it would be well to set the axis of the globe at an inclina- 
tion of 23I- degrees from a perpendicular to the plane of the 
ecliptic, holding the globe so that the north pole leans towards 
the sun. It may require some little tact in questioning, but the 
class should be led to discover the fact that a circle extending 
23^ degrees from the north pole constantly receives light from 
the sun, no matter in which way the globe may be turned. Do 
not tell the pupils this, but lead them to discover it. This will 
develop the fact that there are parts of the world in which the 
day lasts much longer than the period which we know as day- 



^^^ 



iTiliiiiijIItiijyiilii 




Apparent Daily Motion of Sun — Observer at the North Pole. 

time in temperate latitudes. It also leads to a consideration of 
the yearly motion of the earth, the change of seasons, and the dis- 
cussion of the varying lengths of day and night. 

In all ordinary uses of the globe, do not fail to have its normal 
position with the axis pointing north and south, and inclined at 
such an angle that it is parallel to the axis of the earth. It may be 
necessary to tip the frame of the globe slightly to accomplish this, 
but this can be easily managed. All movements of the globe 
should be made from this position as a basis. In sunny days it 
is an excellent plan to carry the globe out of doors, and, after 
setting it in the proper position, study the positions of the actual 
shadows. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 69 

The Earths Yearly Motion. —The earth, like the other 
planets, is forever whirling around the sun. While making a 
complete revolution around the sun, it rotates about 365J times 
on its axis. Call attention to the fact that the only convenient 
way of estimating the yearly motion of the earth is by expressing 
it in so many rotations upon the axis. These motions of the earth 
are, in fact, the only convenient measures of time, and they have 
been used as such ever since people have lived on the earth. Call 
attention to the fact that nearly all our common measures, those 
of the metric system excepted, are based upon the length of the 
day or of the year. For instance, the yard is a certain fractional 
length of a pendulum which beats seconds. The gallon and the 
bushel are volumes which can be expressed only by the subdivis- 
ions of the yard ; the pound, whether troy or avoirdupois, is the 
weight of a certain measured volume of water. It is a good plan to 
dwell on the fact that the year is not an even measure of the day, 
and that while the former is usually called 365J days, yet practi- 
cally (and legally) 365 even days is the length of the year for three 
successive years, the fourth year having 366 days. But the exact 
length of the year is 365 d. 5 h. 48 m. and 47 s. The fractional part 
of the day is therefore not quite one-fourth of a day, and to add 
the extra day every four years would carry calendar time ahead of 
true time. This is counterbalanced by dropping the extra day in 
all even centuries except those which are divisible by 400. Thus, 
the year 1900 will have but 365 days, while the year 2000 will have 
366 days. Except as noted, the extra day is added to the number 
of the year which is evenly divisible by 4, as 1876, 1892, etc. 

Before the time of Julius Caesar, the length of the year had 
been commonly taken as 365 days. But even at Caesar's time 
the error had become noticeable, and Caesar partly corrected it by 
adding the extra day to every fourth year, thereby establishing the 
leap year. This circumstance gave rise to the ' Julian ' Calendar. 1 

1 The Romans divided the month into three parts, called respectively the 
Ides, the Nones, and the Kalends. Hence the origin of the expression Cal- 
endar. Cassar also redivided the year, adding two more months. Hence the 
apparent inconsistency of calling September the seventh month, etc. 



70 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

But the difference between 365 d. 6 h. (365.25) and 365 d. 5 h. 
48 m. 47 s. (365.2422) finally involved so much error that in 
1582 Pope Gregory XIII. changed the Calendar again in order to 
bring Easter and the various other church festivals nearer to their 
proper date. To this end he omitted ten days, or rather set the 
Calendar date ten days ahead, and improved Caesar's Calendar by 
decreeing that even centuries, except those divisible by 400, should 
not be leap years. Most of the countries of Europe have adopted 
the new or Gregorian Calendar. In England it was not adopted 
until 1752, and in Russia it has never been adopted, the Julian 
Calendar being still in use. The difference in time now amounts 
to n days. Thus, the 1 6th of July in New York or London is 
the 5th of July in St. Petersburg. For many years after the adop- 
tion of the Gregorian Calendar in England, it was customary to 
express the dates by both methods, in order to prevent confusion. 
Thus, in the English editions of Macaulay's History we find dates 
expressed reb ' J- £?4 7 ' Even at the present day, correspondents 
writing from Russia, and using the Julian Calendar, commonly 
affix the abbreviation O. S. (old style) to all dates. 

With younger pupils it would be perhaps unwise to discuss the 
technical terms involved in the earth's annual motion, such as 
plane of the ecliptic, the ellipse, the eccentricity of the orbit, etc. 
It would be well, however, with older pupils to instruct them in the 
difference between the ellipse and the circle. It will not be amiss, 
either, to teach pupils how to draw an ellipse. The chief and 
only difficulty lies in the fact that a drawing-board is essential, 
inasmuch as it is necessary to drive two or more pins through the 
paper, and to set them quite firmly into the board. This, of 
course, is out of the question where the drawing-paper rests on the 
pupil's desk, unless the latter be cloth-covered or of rough pine : 
it is also difficult on a slated blackboard. A piece of smooth 
pine board, or even a piece of thick pasteboard, will answer all 
purposes, however. The figure that the earth describes in its 
journey around the sun is an ellipse, but it is so near in shape to 
a circle that close measurement is required to detect its shape. It 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 



71 



■ And .r^pk what mild Sons bemgnly ra fe , 

■ Wh.le Man mult lofe the Ufe. and Heav n the Pra.fe 
• Shall it then ber (Indignant here fhe rofe. 
Indignant, yec humane, .her Bofom glow*) 



No 



| (Remark. d 



M.tfJ ToWcW I pJ-l gg^ ^ 



? , iW l«666 

4.jLondon burnt, t 

and cloud: 

ivitb 

Day break 4 2*. 

1 5 part Trin. 



Nan 



^ V .Ma«v 

fien cltar 
Si Matthew 

Days deer., 1 *6 



z 3 

?6 

27 

28 

2 9 
jo] ?| 



16 paftTrin. 
Holy Rood., 

•Windy, 

^Ember Week. 

5 1 Plea/ant 

6|St-» Michael. 

lueatber. 




rr\ i<)\Tbe too obliging 
I i|7 *s fife 8 40 
3'- 5 with rj 7>ra 
T, fet 10 20 cer 
Tt nfe 1151 
m evermore 
di fobhgtng 
60S "fe'f- 
Hold your 
Counul 
©•n^-6 9 9 
before Dinner ', 
Vnfe 8 o 
the f*<l Belly 
bates Tbmking 

(5 <? 2 aj i«?//|l 
ai Jthng: 



iwTl * T? ? 



and Day of Stpiemicr, the faid Courts of Seffion and Exchequer 
411 f u ch Maikets, Fairs, and Mans as afoiefaid, and a)i Cooil 
dent or belonging thereto, (hall be holden and kept upon, or ac 
cording to tbf U 



Natural Days, upoo, or according to v<hich the 
[ari>e fhould have been fo kept 01 holden, in cafe this Act had nor 
beer made , that js to fay, Eleven Days later than the (ame would 
have happened, according to iht 'Nominal Days of the faid New 
Supputai'on ol Tirxe^b* which the Commencement of each Month 
and the Nom'insi Days thereof, ere anticipated 01 brought forward 
by the Space of Eleven Days j any thiDg in this Act contained to th> 
ronlijrj ihneof in anj wife notwithftanding, 

And •wbtrfos, acio'ding to dtvtij CuftomJ, Prefcriptions, and U-J 
fajes. in certain Places wilhin this Kmgdom, ceiuin Lands an3 
GreuotJs ate, on, particular Nominal Days and Times in the Year, to 

be 



F ae shnne of a pa g e from • ,0^ = ■ £*-* *- £ 
cession of the Calendar, the date havn^ b en dvan c« ^ ^ 

ffirri*VSS — -2, -i, of con- 

^Ited by eourtesy of the PhUadetphia Library. Photographed by Mr. 

W. W. Randall. 



I 



72 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

is not a bad idea to have the orbit or earth's path drawn on scale, 
and once prepared to draw the ellipse, any number of ellipses vary- 
ing in eccentricity may be drawn. 

Fasten a sheet of white or of good manilla paper to the 
smoothed side of a pine board not less than 13 inches wide. In 
about the centre of the paper drive two small pins one-tenth of an 
inch apart into the board so that they set firmly. Fasten the end 
of a thread a little over 1 2 inches long to each pin so that there 
is, as nearly as can be measured, 12.1 inches of thread between the 
knots. Now subtend the thread with the point of the pencil, and 
beginning at one side, in line with the pins, allow the subtended 
thread to guide the pencil point until half the ellipse is drawn. In 
a similar manner finish the other side. This ellipse is practically 
a reduced orbit of the earth on scale. By varying the length of 
the thread and the distance between the pins, other ellipses may 
be drawn. The two pins are called the foci (sing, focus) of the 
ellipses, and the distance between the foci is its eccentricity. If 
we imagine a vast level surface without thickness to extend through 
space in such a position that the earth's orbit could be drawn upon 
it, or that the orbit everywhere touched it, this figure will be the 
plane of the ecliptic. 

It is a difficult matter to explain just what is meant by the plane 
of the ecliptic without a physical illustration. A good way of illus- 
trating it is to suspend a cheap globe, or one made for the purpose, 
in water. Thrust a wire or a knitting-needle through a ball on 
which the equator, tropics, and polar circles have been drawn. 
Hold the ball by the axis in a shallow vessel of water so that the 
surface of the water touches the equator. The surface of the 
water represents the plane of the ecliptic, and in this position the 
latter corresponds exactly with the plane of the equator. Now 
incline the axis until the surface of the water just touches the trop- 
ical circles. If the latter be drawn in their proper places, the 
inclination of the axis will amount to 23^- degrees. This shows the 
true relative position of the earth and the plane of the ecliptic. 
Note the fact that this plane crosses the equator in two places 180 
degrees apart. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 73 

Change of Seasons. — If the foregoing points have been made 
clear, the pupils are now ready for the explanation of the change 
of seasons. Before beginning the series of experiments it will be 
well to refer to the fact that the earth's axis points always in the 
same fixed direction, 1 and that it keeps parallel to itself in all parts 
of the orbit. It will be well, also, to review the previous lessons in 
which it has been shown that the most warmth is received in 
those places where the sun's rays fall vertically, and the least 
where they strike the earth obliquely. Now prepare the lamp and 
the globe, darkening the room if possible. Place the globe at the 
same height as the lamp, and incline the axis so that the north 
pole leans 23^ degrees towards the light. Question the class until 
the fact is apparent that the sun's rays reach 23 \ degrees beyond 
the north pole, and that they are nearly vertical in most of the 
Northern Hemisphere. Note, also, that while in this position, all 
that part of the surface within a distance of 23^ degrees is not 
turned away from the sun at any time during the twenty-four 
hours. Note the additional fact that parts of the earth without the 
circle are bathed by the sunlight for the greater part of the time 
during the earth's rotation. 

From this exercise two important facts bearing upon climate 
may be impressed on the class. First, the sun's rays are vertical, 
or nearly so, on a large part of the Northern Hemisphere. Second, 
all the Northern Hemisphere receives sunlight from thirteen to 
twenty-four hours of the day. Therefore, because the sun's rays 
are so direct, and because every part of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere is receiving heat and light more than half the time, it is the 
warm or summer season in this hemisphere. By judicious ques- 
tioning, lead the pupils at this point to discover that the Southern 
Hemisphere receives much less light and heat, and that the sur- 
face within a distance of 2 3 A- degrees receives no sunlight at all 
while in the position represented by the globe. 

Carry the globe half-way round in its extemporized orbit, taking 

1 There is a slight but uniform change which becomes apparent only after 
lung intervals of time. This will be noted elsewhere. 



74 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

care to keep the axis parallel to its former position. An inspec- 
tion of the globe will show that the conditions of light and heat 
are very different from what they were when the earth was in its 
former position. Lead the class to discover that the north pole 
now inclines 23I degrees away from the sun. Note that all that 
surface around the north pole to a distance of 23I degrees from 
it receives no sunlight at all. Develop the fact that beyond this 
circle the sun shines less than half the time on any part of the 
Northern Hemisphere while the earth is in this position. The 
great difference between the heating power of vertical and oblique 
rays may here be shown. It will be seen that a given number of 
rays falling obliquely may cover, say, twice the area they would if 
they descended vertically. 

With the foregoing experiments it will be easy to clear away any 
misapprehension of the fact that with summer in the Northern, 
there must necessarily be winter in the Southern Hemisphere. It 
will undoubtedly heighten the interest and make a lasting impres- 
sion if the teacher can procure a copy of the log of some vessel 
plying between New York and Buenos Ayres, selecting a sailing 
some time in February or August. 

The two foregoing exercises show the relative position of the 
axis of the earth in June and December — the seasons of maximum 
heat in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It may be well 
in the judgment of the teacher to pass over the intervening posi- 
tions in March and September. Perhaps in the majority of cases 
it would be unwise to make any mention of the spring and the 
autumnal equinox. It may not be confusing, however, to call the 
pupils' attention to the fact that in March and September the sun's 
rays are less slanting than in June, and more slanting in December 
(if we take the Northern Hemisphere) . This will be evident from 
the fact that they reach exactly from pole to pole. The days and 
nights being now of equal length, every place receives as much 
heat during the day as it does during the night. It will be proper 
to mention here a fact that will be more fully discussed in the 
notes on physical geography ; namely, that the seasons as we best 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 75 

know them in the eastern and interior parts of the United States 
are either greatly modified or have no existence in other parts of 
the world (see p. 120). 

It is a very difficult matter to show graphically the apparent 
north and south motions of the sun, because the sun requires six 
months to complete a single oscillation. On some clear day of 
June, at midday, pupils may be directed to estimate the height 
of the sun from the southern horizon, and the same may be again 
done in December. The difference in the height of the sun will 
at once be apparent. If a pole ten or twelve feet high be erected 
in the school yard, its shadow, at noon, will gradually decrease in 
length from January to July, and increase from July to January. 
Stick a pin lightly into the globe somewhere in the north tem- 
perate zone, and carry the globe around the lamp, keeping the 
axis in its proper position. By repeating the experiment under 
different conditions, the following general laws may be experi- 
mentally shown, the pupil in each case making his own de- 
ductions : 

In the north temperate zone the noon shadows fall towards the 
north ; in the south temperate zone, towards the south. 

In the torrid zone the noon shadows fall towards the south during 
the first half, and north during the last half of the year. 1 

From these experiments it may be shown that if an observer 
stand at the equator and watch the sun at noon each day of the 
year, the sun will appear to swing northward and southward a dis- 
tance of 2 3 J- degrees from the zenith point, a total oscillation of 
about 47 degrees. In the latter part of March (say) the sun is 
directly overhead. Day after day it goes northward until the 
latter part of June. Then it seems to be stationary (the summer 
solstice or suji-standing) , and immediately afterward swings back 
in an opposite direction. In the latter part of September it is 

1 The discussion of the shadows in the frigid zones will be apt to prove 
somewhat confusing to pupils. Being immaterial, it may be omitted. 



76 



HINTS TO TEACHERS 



overhead again, and in December it has gone 23^- degrees south- 
ward, when it stops (winter solstice)., and turns northward. 

Except with very mature pupils, it is doubtful whether any 
attempt should be made to use the terms ' summer ' and ' winter 
solstice ' or ' spring ' and ' autumnal equinox.' All of these words 
are loosely used, and are properly used in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere only. The summer solstice of New York is the winter 
solstice of Melbourne. The same is true of the spring and the 
autumnal equinox. 






^_3T 



: - ~ 








==JHHIi 

. ■"-. 
y - - \ y 

■ ■- : : ' ■ ■ " " : "--■■ 

' .. ' 

.. ^ ■ ■■ ' 





The Apparent Yearly Motions of the Sun North and South of the Equator. 



By this time the pupils will be ready to understand why the 
tropical and polar circles are drawn each in its particular position 
on the globe. The following facts should be developed by ques- 
tioning, together with the use of the globe. The pupils themselves 
should be required to fix the globe in its proper position. 

The Arctic Circle marks the farthest limits to which the sun's rays 
reach on the 21st of June ; the Antarctic Circle marks these 
limits on the 21st of December. 




RAYS 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 77 

The Tropic of Cancer marks the farthest point at which the sun 
is directly overhead at noon in the Northern Hemisphere ; the 
Tropic of Capricorn, a similar point in the Southern Hemisphere. 

The length of the day, that is, the duration of sunshine at dif- 
ferent latitudes, is a matter of interest and importance. A math- 
ematical calculation is necessary to determine this with accuracy, 
but the accompanying dia- northernmost 

gram will show graphically 
the main principles involved 
in estimating the longest 

day of the year. The dia- | \ ?j | ^}( \\ ~-~£g± 

gram shows the earth in 
its position on the 21st of 
June, the shaded part repre- 

• U i-U 1- Li "^^1 &r=?^ SOUTHERNMOST 

senting night ; the lighter ™ rays 

part, day. At the Arctic Len ^ h of Da ^ 

Circle, Lat. 66° 32', all the earth is within the illuminated half of 
the earth, and the day is 24 hours long. At Lat. o° the equator 
is seen to be half in the illuminated and half in the shaded part ; 
the days and the nights are therefore each 12 hours long. In any 
latitude, that fractional part of the parallel in the illumined half of 
the earth, reduced to 24ths, shows the length of the longest day. 

Other Motions of the Earth. — The motion of the earth with 
the rest of the solar system in space is one which it is out of place 
to discuss in these pages. It is only within a few years that this 
motion has been known, and its velocity and direction are largely 
questions of speculation. Recent discoveries have shown that the 
stars of the constellation of Hercules are apparently spreading 
apart, and it is therefore thought that the solar system is moving 
in this direction. The velocity is estimated at 1,382,000,000 miles 
per year by Bessel, and 149,000,000 miles by Struve. 

The axis of the earth, like that of a sleeping top, is slowly sway- 
ing — bending over successively in every direction, and describing 
an elliptical curve. This motion, which amounts to only a few 



78 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

minutes of arc each year, causes the phenomenon known as the 
precession of the equinoxes. The direction of the axis is gradually 
receding from the present north star by a small but measurable 
angular rate, and it is estimated that about 26,000 years are re- 
quired to complete the cycle. When the axis has half completed 
its round of swaying, the seasons will be reversed. The Northern 
Hemisphere will have its mid-winter in June and its mid -summer 
in December. Its winters will be a little longer than its summers, 
and the ice-cap, which is now decreasing, will perhaps once more 
creep southward and cover the continents until they are again 
shrouded in a long glacial winter. 

In discussing the motions of the earth it will be well to avoid 
any mention of centrifugal and cefitripetal forces, as these terms 
are not only misleading, but often erroneously used. It is a fun- 
damental proposition that a body in space once in motion will 
move forever in a straight line unless its direction is deflected. 
Now the direction in which the earth moves is constantly deflected 
by the attraction of the sun ; and the attractive force being ap- 
proximately uniform, the earth is falling towards the sun in exactly 
the same velocity that it is projected through space. The balan- 
cing of the two produces the rotatory motion of the earth around 
the sun. 



PART II. 

MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES. 

VII. 

GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY. 

The Shape of the Earth. — Recent geodetic surveys have de- 
veloped many interesting and striking facts concerning the shape 
of the earth. The surveys show that the earth is not a true oblate 
spheroid, but that it closely resembles a cylinder with the corners 
rounded off. In other words, the earth has that square-shouldered 
shape which astronomers find to be common also to Jupiter and 
Saturn. Between the 20th and 30th parallels the waters of the 
ocean are estimated to be a little more than ten metres higher than 
their normal level ; that is, the surface of the water is forty feet 
farther from the centre of the earth than it would be were the 
earth a true oblate spheroid. It is shown also that a number of 
protuberances exist on various parts of the surface which distort 
its shape. These irregularities are slight, but they are neverthe- 
less measurable. 

The Interior of the Earth. — All students of geology now 
admit that the theory of an earth with a liquid interior surrounded 
by a solid crust is untenable. The earth in its relation to the laws 
of gravitation behaves like a solid body, ' as rigid as a globe of 
glass,' 1 and not like a liquid surrounded by a thin crust. It must 
not be inferred, however, that this view precludes the existence of 
a highly heated interior. On the contrary, a heated interior is 
fully in accord with the laws of gravitation. But liquefaction de- 

1 On the authority of Sir William Thomson. 



80 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES. 

pends on pressure as well as temperature, and the enormous pres- 
sure of the outer parts of the earth prevents the heated interior 
from taking a liquid form. 

It is evident upon a moment's thought that an earth having a 
crust only forty or fifty miles thick would present but little stability 
to a force so enormous as the attractive force of the sun and the 
moon. There would be not only tide-waves of water but also tide- 
waves of the earth's mass itself. Such a tide-wave might be ex- 
ceedingly small, but yet both the advance and the recession of 
the wave would be marked by severe earth-shocks caused by the 
bending and crushing of the strata. 

It is also held by the most advanced geologists that volcanoes 
are not necessarily channels reaching into the general interior, but 
rather into local, subterranean reservoirs of heated matter. 'A 
few geologists, however, find a compromise in the view that there 
exists a semi-liquid stratum between a solid crust and a solid 
nucleus.' 1 

Changes of Elevation. — Observations covering a period of 
more than one thousand years demonstrate that all parts of the 
earth's surface are undergoing more or less change of elevation. 
A few of the more remarkable instances of subsidence and eleva- 
tion are herewith given on the authority of Dana. 

The coasts of Sweden and Finland are slowly rising. The rise 
is noticeable at Stockholm, but increases to the northward. It is 
apparent as far north as North Cape. Careful estimates made 
by the government show that the rise at Uddevalla amounts to 
about four feet per century. In the extreme southern part of 
Sweden there is evidence of a slight subsidence. 

On the western coast of Greenland a slow subsidence is taking 
place. From Disco Bay to the Bay of Igaliko, a distance of five 
hundred miles, the subsidence has been so great that buildings 
along the coast have been entirely submerged, and former islands 
are now covered with water. 

There is also evidence that the Labrador coast is undergoing 

1 Le Conte. 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 81 

slight changes in level, sinking in the vicinity of Baffin Bay, and 
rising towards the south. It has been found that a subsidence is 
taking place along the coast of New Jersey, which, according to 
Prof. G. H. Cook, State Geologist, has amounted to about five 
feet in the past sixty years. 

The coast of British Columbia and the vicinity of Puget Sound 
have been raised notably since the close of the glacial period. A 
more remarkable case of elevation has occurred off the northern 
coast of Asia, in the vicinity of Nova Zemlaia and Spitzbergen. 
'These lands have in many places been raised three hundred feet 
or more, channels have been blocked, and islets off the shore have, 
within the memory of man, become joined to the land.' 1 

Continents. — The confusion in the use of the word ' continent' 
in its geographical sense is apt to give the teacher no little annoy- 
ance. In many of our text-books, Europe, Asia, Africa, and all the 
other great masses of land are each recognized as continents. In 
other text-books only two continents, the Eastern and the Western, 
are described. Almost all modern geographers make a broad dis- 
tinction between continents and grand divisions of land. Thus the 
two grand divisions, North America and South America, consti- 
tute the Western Continent. Africa and Europe-Asia or Eurasia 
form the Eastern Continent. Australia with the outlying island of 
Tasmania is called the Australian Continent. The island chains 
which skirt the shores of the continents are not improperly in- 
cluded as parts of the continent near which they lie. Most of 
these islands are partly submerged mountain-ranges, and in many 
instances their relation and physical connection to the adjacent 
continent may be readily traced. 

This is very apparent in the case of the Aleutian Islands, which 
are a continuation of the peninsula of Aliaska ; it is equally appar- 
ent in the case of the Sunda Islands, which are the tops of a range 
parallel to the Malay Peninsula. Indeed, the whole Malaysian 
Archipelago is thoroughly Asiatic, not only in flora and fauna, but 
also in geological history. Greenland, which is usually and prop- 

1 Prestwich. 



82 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

erly included with North America, has, singularly, a flora and 
fauna resembling those of Europe, rather than those of the West- 
ern Continent. 

Europe and Asia form a single body of land, to which the 
name Eurasia or Europe- Asia is now commonly given. There is 
no reason whatever for considering them as two different land- 
masses, for the line which is supposed to divide them is purely an 
imaginary one. It has not even the merit of being a surveyed 
line, and it is in no respect a physical boundary, for there are 
no characteristic features separated by it. 

Africa is a peninsula attached to Eurasia, and not an island. 
The Suez Canal, a narrow and shallow ditch, does not give Africa 
an insular character which it did not previously possess. Chains of 
rivers, canals, and lakes in a dozen instances separate parts of the 
United States and of Europe, so as to surround them with water, 
but one would hardly call such divisions islands, in a geographical 
sense. It is equally absurd to call Africa an island. 

The Isthmus of Suez, which connects Africa to Eurasia, although 
more than three times as broad as the Isthmus of Panama, presents 
none of the physical features of the latter. The latter is a moun- 
tain-range whose lowest crest is not far from three hundred feet 
above mean tide-water ; the former is a low sand-spit which has 
much the appearance of having been formed by the winds and 
waves. A chain of brackish lagoons extends part way across it, 
and marks a line of depression which formerly was a canal. One 
of the proofs by which archaeologists endeavor to connect Rameses 
the Great, the persecutor of Joseph, with Sesostris, hinges upon 
the canal that Rameses is asserted to have made. It is certain, 
however, that Rameses did construct one of these famous water- 
ways. This was the canal which connects the Red Sea with the 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile. It began about fifteen miles north- 
east of Bubastis, from which point to the Red Sea its course was 
nearly one hundred miles long. The remains of an ancient town 
on the line of this canal bear record both to the existence of the 
canal and to the builder. Then, as now, the shifting sands were 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 83 

the greatest enemy the engineers had to contend with, and the 
canal appears to have repeatedly silted up. It was reopened, 
however, by Necho, by Darius, and by Ptolemy. According to 
Herodotus, Sesostris ' fitted out vessels on the Red Sea, and was 
the first who went beyond the straits into the Indian Ocean.' 

The question of the continental character of Australia is occa- 
sionally a subject of discussion, the counter claim being as to 
whether it is not more correctly classed among islands. If ocean 
surroundings are all that are required to make an island, then Aus- 
tralia is certainly an island. So also are North America and South 
America, and Eurasia. But to the geographer, the continent pos- 
sesses other features beyond mere continuity of shore-line. It has 
definite shape and structure, and distinctive features of relief, 
fauna, and flora. Australia shows these features in a marked 
degree. The chief distinguishing features are the flora and fauna. 
These are totally different from the flora and fauna of any other 
part of the world, and they alone are sufficiently specific to entitle 
Australia to be classed among the continents. The chief lack of 
Australia is a range of mountains in the interior, sufficiently high to 
condense the moisture of the ocean winds. For want of it the 
greater part of the continent will always be a desert. 

In the opinion of the geologist, Australia is regarded as the 
almost sole surviving remnant of a pre-geological age. Although 
its flora and fauna are not especially related to the fossil flora and 
fauna of other continents, yet they are highly indicative of the 
types of a former age. In seeming consistency with its old age, 
most of the continent is sinking 1 — nearly every part in fact except 
the southern coast. This area of slow submergence embraces also 
the greater part of the Caledonian chain of islands. 

Mountains. — The ordinary definitions about mountain-ranges 
and mountain-systems are often erroneous. Usually these defi- 
nitions run about as follows : ' A mountain-peak is a elevation of 
land rising much higher than the surrounding country.' ' A moun- 
tain-range consists of a number of mountains nearly in a line.' ' A 

1 Prestwich. 



84 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

mountain-system is a collection of ranges.' Let us examine these 
definitions. 

The first one leads us to infer that the mountain is a single ele- 
vation rising above a plain or a lowland region. This is scarcely 
ever the case. Isolated mountain-peaks are of very rare occur- 
rence, and they are nearly, if not always, volcanoes. The second 
definition asserts that the mountain-range is a line of peaks, string- 
ing one after another. This is never the case. A mountain-range 
is essentially a fold or wrinkle in the earth's crust. The top or crest 
of the range is usually uneven, and any part of it which is obtru- 
sively higher than the general altitude of the crest is a mountain- 
peak. A mountain-system comprises all the highlands belonging 
to a general elevation. It includes not only the ranges, but also 
the plateaus and cross-spurs which go to make up a great eleva- 
tion. 

Usually the ranges are parallel, but in many instances spurs 
extend from the various ranges in such a way that the crests form 
a complex network. Instances of this kind are frequently observed 
in the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, and the Alps. In the Appa- 
lachian system, however, the ranges are unusually regular, but even 
here the various folds or ranges are not continuous throughout the 
whole extent of the system. A range extends a greater or less 
distance and disappears ; and as one disappears, another takes its 
place, rising possibly to the right or to the left. 

Perhaps the most prevalent idea concerning the formation of 
mountains is that they are composed of matter thrown out of 
vast fissures and piled up in the form of a long wall. This extru- 
sion of molten rock should certainly not be rejected in the consid- 
eration of orographic geology, but, nevertheless, it is practically 
unimportant. The mountain-range has been formed by side or 
lateral pressure, and, excepting an occasional igneous dyke, is com- 
posed entirely of folded strata of sedimentary rock. In some in- 
stances the folding or wrinkling has been quite simple and regular ; 
in others there has been very complex mashing and crumpling of 
strata. 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 85 

It must not be inferred, however, that the formation and uplift 
of the mountain-fold was a matter of short duration. In some 
mountainous regions the upheaval is still going on, and the break- 
ing and crumbling of the strata give rise to the phenomena of 
earthquakes. In at least one range, the Uinta, we may gather some 
idea of the rate of uplift. Green River has cut its way trans- 
versely across this range. Now it is not to be supposed that the 
river flowed point-blank against the escarpment of the range until 
it had cut a channel nearly a mile from top to bottom, rather than 
to flow around the mountains. On the contrary, the river has 
always had the right of way there. It flowed in precisely the same 
channel before the uplift of the Uinta Mountains began, and the 
uplift was not faster than the corrasion of the river. 

There is some little confusion in the use of the terms plateau 
and table-land which has arisen for want of common agreement 
as to what should be specifically embraced under each name. 
Unfortunately there is no fixed custom in the use of the terms, 
and the best that can be done is to follow the usage which com- 
mon sense suggests. Formerly these words were synonymous, 
but latterly the term table-land has been applied to flat-topped 
mountains as well as to general elevations — a modification of 
the term which is unwarranted. In the general sense the 
plateau or table-land is any extensive elevated region of either 
flat or hilly surface. It may flank a mountain-range, exist as a 
pass between the extremities of two ranges, or be a high valley 
between parallel ranges. It is of course impossible to fix a pre- 
cise height above which a surface shall be called a plateau, but 
any extensive surface several hundred feet higher than the adja- 
cent country might properly be called a plateau, if marked by a 
decided or an abrupt slope, while a surface considerably higher 
might be regarded as a plain. The ' Plains ' west of the Missouri 
River are properly considered as a plateau ; so also is the Basin 
Region between the Rocky and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 

The Spanish word 'mesa ' (ma'sa), a table, is now almost usu- 
ally given to the flat-topped formations of the Western Continent. 



86 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

The mesa is always surmounted by a cap of rock, sometimes sedi- 
mentary, and sometimes of lava. It is in every case the result of 
erosion. The surrounding country has been scored with deep, 
water-worn valleys, the mesa being the only part that has not been 
worn away by the weathering forces of nature. The terraced slopes 
along the canons of the Colorado River show in a most striking 
manner how the mesas are formed, and the nearly level country 
scored by these deep canons are excellent types of the mesa. 

Although mesas are commonly spoken of as mountains, it should 
be borne in mind that they have none of the characteristics of 
mountains. The true mountain-range is a fold. The mesa, on 
the contrary, is distinguished by horizontal strata, which have been 
but little disturbed by plication or folding. On maps the mesa 
lands are represented by the same hachure lines that convention- 
ally represent mountains — an unfortunate plan which in not a few 
instances has given rise to the idea that these cliffs are mountains. 
The same erroneous idea prevails with reference t© the mauvaises 
terres} or 'bad lands,' which are so common in parts of Dakota, 
Montana, and Nebraska. The bad lands have been formed mainly 
by running water. The soil of these formations being very light 
and fine, is therefore easily carried away by water. In many in- 
stances small streams of water in recent geological times have 
worn these deep gorges. 

There is also some confusion in the nomenclature of mountains, 
the terms ridge, range, chain, and system being often loosely 
used. As commonly used by geologists a range is a flexure or 
fold of the strata, while the action of water, ice, etc., wears the 

1 The use of this word is unfortunate. It implies that the whole region is 
desolate and worthless for agricultural purposes; and this, indeed, is a very 
widespread impression. As a matter of fact, the bad lands are unusually 
fertile. They derived their name from the description of an old French 
explorer, who asserted them to be mauvaises terres pour traverser. This, 
through the Yankee characteristic of brevity, became shortened into the mis- 
leading term ' bad lands.' The region seems to have been at one time a great 
lake. When the basin filled and overflowed, the outlet, in time, cut its way so 
deep that the lake was entirely drained. 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY S7 

surface of the range into ridges. Occasionally we find several 
ranges which are parallel (or in consecutive lines) and quite so 
near together as to suggest that they were formed at the same 
period. Le Conte and Dana used the term chain to indicate 
such a group of ranges. Thus the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany 
Mountains are parts of the Appalachian Chain ■ the ranges of the 
Rocky Mountains proper form the Rocky Mountain Chain. In 
the United States this use of the word chain is becoming quite 
common, but English geographers generally use the word system 
to denote such a cluster of ranges. This is unfortunate, because 
in the United States the word is used to denote all the mountains 
in the whole great belt. Thus all the western highlands of North 
America form the Rocky Mountain System; all the eastern the 
Appalachian System. Because of this double use of this term, 
it has been proposed to use the term cordillera instead, but as 
yet the word has not come into general use. 

The Exaggeration of Slopes. — Another improper concep- 
tion of mountains is the result of faulty pictures. We are apt to 
outline the slopes of a mountain at angles of from forty to sixty 
degrees in inclination, measured from a horizontal line. As a 
matter of fact, such slopes as these are almost unknown in orog- 
raphy. A few volcanic cones have slopes approaching forty 
degrees near their craters, but these are rare instances. The 
slopes of such peaks as Mont Blanc, Mts. Whitney, Shasta, Hood, 
and St. Elias do not exceed ten or twelve degrees, although there 
are cliffs along their flanks with very steep escarpments. The 
Matterhorn, Jungfrau, and other Alpine crags are considerably 
steeper, but the inclination of their slopes is by no means so great 
as is usually represented. In the engravings of a well-known 
painting the slopes of the Matterhorn are not far from sixty-five 
degrees in inclination ; a photograph in the author's possession 
shows that even the surmounting pinnacle (the ' horn ') of this 
Alp has a slope of hardly more than one-half that portrayed in 
the engraving. 

The pictures of Cotopaxi furnish another example to the point. 



88 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

Until within two or three years all the illustrations of this volcano 
have been copied from an engraved reproduction of Von Hum- 
boldt's sketch, and probably no other picture of geographical 
scenery has ever had a wider circulation. The cut in question 
gives Cotopaxi the outline of an isosceles triangle, the slopes hav- 
ing an angle of about sixty degrees. A photograph recently taken 
shows the slope of the flank to be less than twenty degrees. The 
general appearance of the mountain as photographed, however, 
bears much resemblance to the earlier reproductions of Von Hum- 
boldt's sketch. 

The profile views which usually accompany geographical text- 
books are also open to a certain amount of criticism on this score. 
That vertical exaggeration is necessary to the usefulness of a pro- 
file, no one will deny ; but to make the vertical scale five hundred 
times the horizontal scale, as is occasionally done, is an unpardon- 
able license. Because of the exceedingly limited horizon of an 
observer, there is a seeming vertical exaggeration of the heights of 
mountains as they appear to us in nature. This illusion becomes 
less as the horizon enlarges, and could we view a part of the 
earth's surface at an altitude of one hundred miles, the outlook 
would be vastly different from our present concepts. As a result, 
we are apt to exaggerate vertical distances from five to fifteen times 
their actual proportions in order to have them appear what they 
seem to us actually to be. This is probably the reason why all 
expert topographical modellers insist on a certain amount of license 
in this particular, and they know too well that their work would be 
condemned in toto were very large areas represented on exact 
scale. 

Plains. — A definition of 'plain 1 is also wanting, and the term 
is used indiscriminately to denote highland plains, lowland plains, 
and rolling lands. Common sense would suggest that the word 
should be applied to moderately level lands, and there is no im- 
propriety in designating them as highlands or lowlands, as the case 
may be. For rolling or undulating surfaces, which are too rough 
to be called plains, the term piedmont lands is coming into gen- 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 89 

eral use among geographers. Thus the rolling surface between 
the Atlantic Plain and the foot-hills of the Appalachian Mountains 
are piedmont lands, and the same distinction will apply to the 
country surrounding the Ozark Mountains. 

Erosion. — No other term employed in describing the weather- 
ing processes of nature is more generally misused than ' erosion,' a 
term which is used to cover every kind of degradation or wearing. 
We are largely indebted to our geological survey for the various 
terms used in describing the wearing away of the land-surface, 
and these are so simple that there is no need of the confusion 
and misuse which now exists. The following extract from a paper 
read before the National Academy of Sciences by Professor Powell, 
Director of the United States Geological Survey, shows plainly the 
proper use of the words : — 

" In hydraulic degradation three methods may be distinguished. 
i. The surface of the land is washed away by rains and melting 
snows. The rains gather into streams, as brooks, creeks, and 
rivers, and transport the disintegrated rock from one region to 
another. This general surface degradation may be called ' erosion. 1 

2. During the process of transportation the streams carve channels 
for themselves, and this channel-cutting may be called ' corrasion? 

3. By erosion and corrasion cliffs are produced, and these cliffs 
(once undermined) are broken down by gravity. This method of 
degradation is called ' sapping' " 

Volcanoes. — The ordinary idea of the volcano is also wide of 
the truth. A volcano is nearly always defined as a mountain which 
sends forth flames, smoke, ashes, and melted rock from an opening 
called the crater. Now the volcano is not a mountain, but a hole. 
More specifically, it is a channel leading to a reservoir of intensely 
heated matter deep in the earth. There are no visible flames, 
and, indeed, it is extremely doubtful whether there are any flames 
at all. 1 For, excepting the exceeding small amount of hydrogen 
that is sometimes present among the products of eruption, there 

1 In one or two instances pale lambent flames were observed by Touque. 
These were due to the oxidation of gases at the close of the eruption. 



90 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

is nothing combustible. The lurid glare, which gives the appear- 
ance of flames, is due to the white-hot vapors, and to the reflec- 
tion of the molten lava or the clouds of steam or vapor that issue 
from the crater. The smoke of the volcano consists of dense 
clouds of condensing steam and other vapors. The ashes are not 
ashes at all in the ordinary meaning of the word. They consist 
mainly of finely pulverized mineral matter, totally unlike the 
residue left from the burning of wood or coal. The crater is not 
the opening, but the cup-shaped depression at the top of the 
volcanic mountain. 

The ' mountain ' is no part of the volcano ; it consists merely of 
the ejecta which have been heaped about it. In many instances 
there is no mountain, and the floor of the crater is not more than 
a few hundred feet above the plain. Sometimes the volcano is 
below the surface of the sea, and the materials ejected are piled 
about the opening until they reach to the surface of the water. 
In some instances the crater of the volcano is a deep pit or 
' caldera ' situated at the top of a plateau, every appearance of a 
typical mountain-peak being absent. A notable instance of the 
last is seen in the volcanoes of Hawaii. The island of Hawaii is 
about the size of the state of Connecticut, and its surface rises 
gradually from the sea-level until in the interior it is about 14,000 
feet high. Kilauea, Mauna Kea, and Mo-kea-weo-weo (incorrectly 
called Mauna Loa) are deep calderas on the flanks of the plateau 
at a high elevation. 

As usually given the descriptions of the phenomena of an erup- 
tion are incomplete. The popular idea is that the eruption con- 
sists of a terrific outburst, and a violent upheaval, accompanied 
with the ejection of huge rocks and vast quantities of lava, high 
into the air. That such eruptions occur it is true, but they are the 
exception rather than the rule. The eruptions of Vesuvius are of 
this character, and because this volcano is so well known, it is 
nearly always taken as an illustration of the typical volcano. 

Briefly stated, eruptions of the Vesuvian type consist first of an 
explosion in which the floor of the crater, or perhaps the whole 






GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 91 

top of the mountain, is blown away. Accompanying the explosion 
dense clouds of steam, with sulphureous and other vapors are 
ejected to a great height. The flow of lava then begins, and the 
stream of molten matter flows over the edge of the crater, or per- 
haps is forced into a multitude of channels through the side of the 
mountain. The lava is expelled by the expansive force of the 
gases back of it, and when the reservoir of lava is exhausted, these 
gases escape, carrying with them a vast shower of ' ashes ' which 
are borne by the winds hundreds or even a thousand miles away. 

In some instances the lava rises silently and without apparent 
violence until it fills the crater and flows over the side. The erup- 
tions of the Hawaiian volcanoes are of this character. It is hardly 
necessary to add that earth-shocks and showers of ' ashes ' do not 
accompany such eruptions. 

Perhaps the most interesting volcano to the student of vulcan- 
ology is Stromboli, one of the Mediterranean group. This volcano 
has been in a condition of semi-activity for several hundred years. 
Its ' eruptions ' consist merely of a rather brisk ebullition of the 
lava in the crater, and the escape of pent-up gases which are 
probably formed by the chemical changes going on within the 
mass of the lava. One side of the ramparts of the crater has 
been considerably broken down, while the opposite side, several 
hundred feet higher, projects slightly over the caldera. From the 
summit of this crag one may safely view the seething lava below. 
As one watches the surging mass of molten matter, an immense 
bubble of gas pushes itself up to the surface, and bursting, throws 
a shower of fiery clots of lava a thousand feet or more into the air. 

Perhaps there is no phenomenon so frequently misinterpreted as 
that of the eruption of volcanoes. Almost yearly we are informed 
of the eruption of some volcano or other which has been quiet 
for years. Thus the outburst which occurred in the Colorado 
Desert some years since was nothing more nor less than the for- 
mation of a hot mud-spring. It is more than probable that a hot 
spring had always occupied this site, but at the time of its free 
advertising as a volcano, its flow had enormously increased, owing 



92 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

to a recent earthquake. The author visited the locality twice, the 
second time after an interval of two years, but there were no other 
volcanic phenomena apparent. 

The alleged eruption of Tacoma, or Mount Rainier, Washing- 
ton, consisted of nothing more serious than a fire in the fir 
timber which so profusely covers the flanks of the mountain. The 
smoke which is asserted to come from the crater of Mount Hood, 1 
Oregon, is merely a cloud banner formed from the vapor con- 
densed by the snowy crest of the mountain. 

A still more misleading case was the alleged eruption near 
Babispe, a small adobe town in Mexico. As described in a New 
York journal, the eruption was attended with severe earthquakes, 
while the lava set fire to everything in its path. Now, here was a 
clear misconception from beginning to end. The facts occurred 
nearly as stated, but the interpretation was all wrong. What really 
occurred was a series of very severe earthquakes, and an immense 
fissure and fault in the strata now marks the site of the shocks. The 
town of Babispe was destroyed by fire, it is true, but it was first 
shaken to pieces and then burned in the ordinary manner. There 
was no flow of lava, although there was a flood of hot, muddy 
water which was probably squeezed out of some underground 
reservoir or other. The ' fiery crest of the mountain ' certainly 
' reflected a lurid glare ' for miles around, but the glare came from 
the forest fires which swept through the mountains during the few 
days following the earth-shocks, and not from any outflow of lava. 

The existence of volcanoes in Central Asia, near the head-waters 
of the Irtish River, rests on very slim authority. That hot min- 
eral springs exist there is more than probable, but of the existence 
of a true volcano there is absolutely no authoritative evidence 
whatever. 

Depressions in the Land below the Sea-Level. — The ex- 
tent of land whose surface is below the sea- level is greater than 

1 I have frequently observed the cloud banner flaunting from Mount Hood, 
as well as from various peaks in the Alps. They are identical with those 
described by Professor Tyndall in ' Forms of Water.' — J. W. R. 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 93 

commonly supposed. The depressions are, with one or two excep- 
tions, rather small in size, and lie mainly in a belt between the 
30th and 40th parallels of latitude. A peculiar feature of these 
depressions is their proximity to the seacoast. In nearly every 
instance they are within 200 miles of the ocean. The following 
list embraces the more important ones : — 

The Ghor is perhaps the most notable of all depressions. It 
lies about fifty miles east of the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, 
and embraces the greater part of the valley of the Jordan River, 
including the Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), and the Dead 
Sea. The former lake is about 670, the latter 1302, feet below 
the sea-level. 

The Shotte includes several depressions in Africa, lying in a line 
south of the Atlas Mountains. They seem formerly to have opened 
into the Gulf of Cabes. According to Dubocq {Memoir e sur le 
Ziban et FOued Rir) the Shotte are situated at levels varying 
from 95 to 279 feet below the sea, and covering about 1000 
square miles. 

On the authority of several recent writers there is a large 
depression in Sahara, south of the peninsula of Barca, which, it 
is asserted, covers an area of more than 100,000 square miles. 
Careful investigations do not support this belief. On the con- 
tray, Andrees' map (edition of 1886) contains over 100 estab- 
lished levels, made by Rolfe in 1874, scattered over the region in 
question. Of these two only show a depression below the sea- 
level, — one of 90, the other of 210 feet. The other levels show 
an average altitude of not far from 1000 feet above the sea-level. 

The Sea of Assal is a small depression in Africa, probably shut 
off from the Gulf of Aden. Its surface is about 570 feet below 
the sea-level. 

The Caspian Sea partly fills the largest known depression on 
the earth's surface. This depression includes the lower courses 
of the Volga and Ural rivers, and has an area estimated at 
200,000 square miles, of which the Caspian Sea covers about 
140,000. The basin is dotted with a multitude of small playa 



94 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

lakes, of which Lake Elton is the largest. The surface of the 
Caspian Sea is 84 feet below the sea-level. 

The Arroyo, del Muerto, or Death Valley, and the Sink of the 
San Felipe, both in the southern part of California, are the only 
depressions at present known in the Western Continent. At 
King's Springs, Death Valley is 225 feet below the level of the 
ocean, but there are one or two other points in the valley some- 
what lower. The Sink of the San Felipe, or Conchilla Valley, is 
a much larger depression, extending over an area about one hun- 
dred miles long and thirty in width. It is probably a continuation 
of Death Valley. The Southern Pacific Railway now crosses this 
depression 261 feet below the sea-level. The author crossed it 
in 1877 at a point where an aneroid barometer showed an altitude 
of 320 feet below the sea. It is probable that the deepest point 
in this depression is not far from 400 feet below mean tide. It is 
only a few miles from this locality that the celebrated ' Ship of the 
Desert ' was found. This famous vessel, which has been made 
the subject of a popular poem, is beyond doubt the frame of a 
ferry-boat designed for the Colorado River. The builder at- 
tempted to drag the frame to the river, but his teams died in the 
desert and the boat was abandoned. The projector of the enter- 
prise was living in 1885. 

There has for some years been an impression that a low neck 
of land in the northern part of the peninsula of Lower California 
is covered by the sea at times of unusually high tide. This belief 
is absolutely without foundation. The lowest crest of the northern 
part of the peninsula is between the sources of the Rio de las 
Palmas, which flows into the Pacific, and a dry wash leading to 
the Sink of the San Felipe. This crest is not less than 1000 feet 
in height, and probably somewhat higher. It is hardly necessary 
to add that the water does not cover it at high tide. 

The Character of Deserts. — There is a general opinion 
concerning the character of deserts which is a misinterpretation 
of the facts of the case. It is the common impression that the 
soil of the desert is covered with sand, and that its surface is low 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 95 

and level. Now, if there is anything that is scarce in most desert 
regions, it is sand ; water is abundant in comparison. The soil of 
the desert may be of any character. What is usually spoken of 
as sand is, in nearly every instance, finely pulverized soil contain- 
ing not a grain of sand. In a certain part of the Great African 
Desert there is a locality in which true sand is abundant. In this 
case, however, the sand is derived from high ranges of sandstone 
rock. This desert is a desert for lack of water, and not because 
of the presence of sand. The soil varies in different locali- 
ties, and consists in different places of sand, gravelly shingle, 
alkaline dust, yellow loam, clay, or rock. The surface, which 
in some places is smooth and level, in others is rugged and moun- 
tainous. East of the centre is the lofty range known as the Tarso, 
or Jebbel Hoggar Mountains, snow-clad during one-third of the 
year. In the Colorado and Mojave deserts of California, the soil 
is almost exclusively a finely pulverized feldspar, derived from 
the disintegrated granite of the mountain ranges which traverse 
the region. 

It is a mistake to consider the soil of a desert sterile. On the 
contrary, it is usually rich, because none of its essential elements 
have been removed by growing vegetation. Wherever water can 
be obtained vegetation quickly becomes luxuriant. It would be 
difficult to find more productive spots than Humboldt, Nevada, 
and Dos Palmas, California ; and yet a few years ago the sites on 
which these places have been built were so parched and dry that 
even sage-brush and cactus would not thrive there. 

Coral Islands. — The idea of the coral island commonly ex- 
presses itself in a picture of an atoll. In nearly every instance the 
picture shows a circular ring without a break, encircling an empty 
lagoon. That coral atolls have in some instances a circular, ring- 
shaped form cannot be denied ; but in most instances the shape 
of the ring is anything but circular. It is always more or less 
irregular, and, in many cases, very angular. Sometimes the atoll 
consists of a great number of small islets arranged in ring form ; 
sometimes it is only a fragmentary part of a ring. 



96 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

The nomenclature of coral islands is frequently confused ; the 
words atoll, barrier reef, and fringing, or encircling reef, being in- 
discriminately used. One of the best authorities on the subject 
uses the term atoll, a Malay word, to designate the ring-shaped 
islands ; encircling or fringing reefs, to denote those very near the 
shore ; and barrier reefs, to describe those that are at a consider- 
able distance from the shore, and separated from it by a wide 
lagoon. It is doubtful if this nomenclature can be improved. 

The most prevalent idea of the origin of the coral reef is the 
theory proposed by Darwin. According to his idea, the coral 
polyp built a fringing reef about a volcanic or other elevation. 
The latter, sinking slowly, compelled the coral polyp to build 
higher, in order to keep near the surface. That such a theory 
accounts for many of the various phenomena of coral islands 
cannot be denied ; but it is equally true that it will not apply to 
all coral formations, for in some instances coral reefs rise to a 
height of several hundred feet. Such cases can be explained only 
by admitting that in these particular localities the movement of 
the land has been one of elevation rather than depression. Such 
examples may be seen in the Loyalty Islands. On approaching 
them the cliffs have much the same appearance as the high chalk 
cliffs of England, except that they are some distance inland, in- 
stead of rising immediately from the sea. On the island of Mare 
lines of cliffs rise successively inland, forming a series of terraces. 
Now each of these terraces indicates a distinct upheaval, and the 
periods of rest between upheavals have been of sufficient length 
to permit the formation and accumulation of soil to the depth cf 
several feet. 

The investigations of Agassiz, Semper, Murray, and others have 
brought to light many facts which show that the growth of reefs 
and atolls can be accounted for without the supposition of a sub- 
sidence of the sea-bottom. In the waters of tropical latitudes 
marine life of almost every kind exists in the greatest profusion, 
and skeletons of such organisms accumulate at the bottom. The 
magnitude of these accumulations may be seen in the chalk cliffs 



GEODESY AND OROGRAPHY 97 

of Western Europe and the infusorial deposits of California. 1 The 
continued increase of such deposits would, in the course of time, 
raise the tops of submarine mountain-peaks and plateaus to the 
limit within which the coral polyp can exist. 

The question is occasionally propounded, ' Whence comes the 
fresh- water supply of coral, and low, sandy islands ? ' The sup- 
position is sometimes explained by asserting that the islands are 
supplied with the fresh waters of submarine springs. Now such 
a supposition is simply absurd on the face of it. That a stream 
of fresh water should burrow its way under the ocean several 
thousand miles, and rising, hit an island, is a hypothesis which 
will not stand examination,. Such islands receive their water 
supply in the same manner as does any other part of the earth. 
The rain falls, and the water that does not flow off or evaporate, 
sinks into the ground, and may be found by digging for it. In 
the former case, the rain-water rests on a bed of clay, or other 
impervious earth, through which it cannot pass ; in the latter, it 
rests on a bed of salt water, with which it does not mix because it 
is lighter. 

Variation of the Compass. — Frequently we are told — 'The 
needle of the compass points north and south.' Occasionally the 
statement is modified to read ' nearly north and south,' but this is 
the exception rather than the rule. As a matter of fact, there 
are but few localities on the earth where the needle of the com- 
pass does point due north and south, and these are constantly 
changing. An irregular line drawn from the mouth of the Orinoco 
River, through the east coast of Hayti, Charleston, S.C., and 
Detroit, Mich., represents very nearly the line in which there is no 
variation at the present time. In all places east of this line the 
north or — end of the needle swings slightly to the westward ; in 
all places west of it, to the eastward. At the mouth of the 
Columbia River the variation of the compass is about 22 E. ; in 
Alaska, it is from 40 to 6o° E. 

1 These infusorial deposits in Los Angeles County have an aggregate thick- 
ness of several thousand feet. 



98 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

The reason for this is that the compass needle points, not to 
the geographical, but to the magnetic poles, and these do not coin- 
cide with the geographical poles. The magnetic north pole is at 
present on or near the southwestern shore of Boothia Peninsula/ in 
the northern part of North America. Its position is constantly 
changing, and it is thought that, during the last six hundred years, 
the magnetic pole has moved about half the distance around the 
geographical pole. During a period of three hundred years in 
which observations have been carefully made at the magnetic 
observatory in Paris, the variations have changed from n° 20' east 
of north to 2 2° io' west. In the United States the rate of the 
change in variation differs much in different parts of the country. 
In Washington and Oregon it changes at the rate of about 7' a 
year ; in Arizona and New Mexico it is stationary ; in the New 
England States it is from 1' to 3' per year. 

The ' dip ' of the compass needle is rarely spoken of in geo- 
graphical text-books, and it is generally inferred that the horizon- 
tal attraction is the only feature of magnetic force. The dip of 
the needle is, in polar latitudes, a much stronger force than that 
of the orientation, or north-and-south motion of the needle. In 
equatorial latitudes the dip is not noticeable, but as the observer 
approaches polar latitudes, it becomes stronger, until at the mag- 
netic pole the horizontal force disappears and the needle assumes 
a vertical position, the — end being next the earth at the north 
magnetic pole, and the -f- end at the south magnetic pole. 

Often in whaling vessels or other ships which cruise in high 
latitudes one may notice a string reaching from the binnacle to the 
wheelsman, who occasionally gives the compass box a sharp jerk. 
This he does in the hope that the needle will settle down to a 
fixed direction. It may be inferred from this that the horizontal 
force is so weak that the compass is not of much use in polar lati- 
tudes, — a conclusion which is correct. 



HYDROGRAPHY 99 

VIII. 

HYDROGRAPHY. 

Deep-Sea Soundings. — Modern methods of deep-sea sound- 
ing have not only yielded extremely interesting results, but they 
have also shown that the deep soundings formerly made with the 
cumbersome manilla rope are wholly untrustworthy and enormously 
exaggerated. Lieutenant Berryman, of the United States brig 
Dolphin, found no bottom in the Atlantic at 6500 fathoms. Cap- 
tain Denham, of the British steamer Herald, reported bottom in 
the South Atlantic at a depth of 7700 fathoms. Lieutenant Parker, 
United States frigate Congress, near the same place, ran out 50,000 
feet of line without finding bottom, — all this in the face of the 
fact that more modern soundings have shown no great depth of 
water in the same localities. 

In 1872 Sir William Thomson brought steel piano wire into 
successful use for the purposes of sounding. 1 The wire employed 
is yJq- of an inch in diameter and will stand a strain of 230 pounds. 
The manner of its use has been greatly improved in turn by Com- 
mander Belknap, United States Navy, and Lieutenant Sigsbee of 
the Coast Survey steamer Blake. By the improved method the 
sounding-wire carries a fifty-pound sinker, a Miller-Caselli ther- 
mometer, and an automatically closing tube which receives a speci- 
men of the ooze at the bottom of the sea. When the sinker strikes 
bottom, 2 it detaches itself and, at the same time, closes the tube 
or cup which secures the specimen of sea-bottom. 

1 Steel wire was first used in deep-sea sounding in 1 85 2. 

2 On account of the enormous pressure at these great depths — between 
80,000 and 100,000 pounds per square inch — there is a general belief that the 
sinker will float at a certain depth, on account of the density of the water. 
Not only is this untrue, but a sinker attached to a light wire will drop about 
as rapidly between 4000 and 5000 fathoms as between 1 and 4000. 



100 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

The deepest sounding yet recorded in any part of the ocean was 
made by the United States steamer Tuscarora, in the Pacific Ocean, 
a few leagues off the Kooril Islands, where a depth of 4655 fathoms 
(27,930 feet) was reached. In the Caroline Archipelago the Chal- 
lenger found a depression in which a sounding of 4475 fathoms 
was obtained. Between the Sandwich Islands and the island of 
Hondo, the Tuscarora found a group of six submerged moun- 
tains varying from 7000 to 12,000 feet in altitude, their crests 
being at least 1500 fathoms underwater. Their sides and summits 
were found to be clothed with coral limestone, while lava and a 
yellowish -brown soil were discovered in the valleys. The deepest 
part of the Atlantic Ocean yet discovered lies about seventy miles 
north of Porto Rico. Here Commander Brownson of the Blake 
obtained soundings of 4561 fathoms (Jan. 27, 1883), and Com- 
mander Barker of the United States steamer Enterprise, a depth 
of 4529 fathoms (February, 1886). 

Modern soundings have shown that the bed of the sea is far 
more level than the surface of the land, except in the vicinity of 
the continents, and the coral islands of the Pacific. Between New 
York and Liverpool there is no known grade too steep for a rail- 
way train to climb with ease. From an average of several thou- 
sand soundings it is estimated that the wider parts of the ocean 
have a depth varying in general from 2000 to 3000 fathoms. This 
estimate agrees fairly with the theoretical depth calculated by Pro- 
fessor Bache of the United States Coast Survey. 

The Ocean Current as a Factor in Climate. — The relation 
of warm ocean currents to the climate of the country against whose 
shores they drift is not generally interpreted with accuracy. The 
idea, not infrequently imparted, that the mere impinging of warm 
water against the shore is sufficient to modify the temperature 
of a region, needs only a second thought to show its fallacy. 
Within the past few years the facts have been more correctly stated, 
by asserting that the water warms the winds, and the latter in turn 
impart warmth to the region over which they blow ; this, however, 
states only part of the truth. 



HYDROGRAPHY 101 

Let us look at the facts of the case. When warm winds blow 
over a drift of water, a great amount of moisture is evaporated. 
When these winds reach cooler regions, a part of their moisture is 
condensed in the form of rain. The condensation of the moisture 
sets free an enormous amount of the latent heat which was ab- 
sorbed when the water took the form of vapor. When we con- 
sider that the condensation of one pound of vapor sets free enough 
heat to warm 967 pounds of water one degree, we may better 
understand the value of such a factor, and its potency in temper- 
ing climate. In fact, it is a bodily transfer of heat rather than 
an ordinary warming process. 

That the ocean current has a decided influence on the condi- 
tion of the coast, however, cannot be doubted. A coast in high 
latitude, constantly swathed by the waters of a cold current, is 
pretty apt to be ice-locked during much of the year, for the reason 
that, constantly surrounded by cold water, the winter's accumula- 
tion of ice has but little opportunity to melt. On the contrary, 
a coast bathed by warm water will loosen and melt the ice about 
as fast as it forms. Yet, in spite of this diversity of condition, the 
average winter temperature of the two places may not differ more 
than a few degrees. 

This leads to the discussion of the common assertion that if the 
Panama Canal were once cut through the isthmus, the whole 
coast of Europe would suffer a great decrease of temperature. 
Such nonsense as this has found its way into even the more re- 
spectable educational journals. Let us examine the facts of the 
case. The great equatorial current, in its westward course, must 
necessarily divide off the coast of South America. One half, we 
will say, is diverted southward ; the other half northward. The 
current in question is not far from one thousand miles in width, 
and it is quite reasonable to suppose that its depth is two hundred 
fathoms at the very least. Now in order that no part of this cur- 
rent be swirled off in the form of a circular return current, the 
canal through the Isthmus of Panama must be at least one thou- 
sand miles wide and twelve hundred feet deep. A canal of this 



102 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

size might possibly affect the climate of Europe very slightly, 
though, as is seen in the foregoing paragraphs, the effect will not 
be great. But the proposed Panama Canal is a ditch which at the 
best would carry a stream less than one hundred feet wide and 
fifty feet deep. Even were the Gulf Stream turned directly against 
this canal, it would have no effect on the climate of Europe. A 
stream of hot water poured out of a tea-kettle would be equally 
potent in modifying the climate of Labrador. 

The Gulf Stream. — It is now more than ten years since Com- 
mander Bartlett, U.S.N., published the result of his surveys in 
the Gulf Stream. The amended chart of this stream has appeared 
in one or two recent text-books, but the essential features of Bart- 
lett's surveys are rarely comprehended. The Gulf Stream does 
not make the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico, and then pass outward 
along the Florida coast. On the contrary, little or none of the 
water of this stream enters the Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf Stream, 
after leaving the Carribbean Sea, passes directly through Florida 
Strait, and it is at this point that the current really originates. 
From Florida Strait to Jupiter Inlet the current has a velocity 
varying from four to five and a half miles an hour. Beyond the 
50th parallel it gradually spreads out in a fan-shaped drift, which 
is pushed northeast and east until it becomes a mass of water 
subject to the caprice of the winds only. 

The Gulf Stream is not a ' river whose bed and banks are the 
cooler waters of the ocean.' On the contrary, in most of its 
course it extends to the bottom, and even at the bottom its cur- 
rent is so strong that it sweeps the minute shells with which the 
Caribbean Sea is covered, as far north as Cape Hatteras. 

It is surmised that a part of the Gulf Stream flows northward as 
an undercurrent, after passing the 50th parallel. This is almost 
wholly a matter of opinion, and in the present state of deep-sea 
soundings there is not sufficient evidence to fully establish such a 
theory. The strongest confirmation comes from Nordenskjold, the 
famous Arctic explorer. During Nordenskj old's explorations along 
the east coast of Greenland a number of soundings were made 



HYDROGRAPHY 103 

with reference to temperature. A few leagues off shore a stratum 
of comparatively warm water was observed at a depth of fifty fath- 
oms. In a few instances the temperature of this water was from 
twenty to thirty degrees warmer than that of the surface. It is at 
least reasonable to suppose that this stratum consisted of Gulf 
Stream water, but it is by no means an established fact. 

Off the coast of North Carolina an adverse current is frequently 
encountered which has been a puzzle in ocean hydrography. This 
current pushes in a general southerly direction, even in the face of 
a strong wind. Because of its turbulent, choppy character it is 
not a favorite among navigators, who have given it the expressive 
but inelegant name, ' Little Hell,' by which it is known on the 
pilot charts. It has been surmised that this current is caused by 
the rising of the Arctic current. 

The Kuro Siwo. — For many years it has been regarded as an 
accepted fact that the part of the Kuro Siwo (koo'ro s/ie'vo) 
entered the Arctic Ocean through Bering Strait. In order to 
study the currents of Bering Sea and Strait, Dall and Baker, of the 
United States Coast Survey, carried on a series of observations cov- 
ering a period of three years. The result showed not only that no 
part of the Kuro Siwo enters Bering Strait, but that actually a feeble 
current emerges from it. The surveys of this stream show that it 
is a smaller, and also a colder current than the Gulf Stream. Its 
waters rarely exceed 6&° in temperature, while those of the Gulf 
Stream sometimes reach 86°. In winter, when the northwestern 
monsoons prevail, the Kuro Siwo does not flow beyond the 30th 
parallel, and sometimes its progress is checked for several days by 
adverse winds. During the summer, however, when the south- 
eastern monsoon blows with full strength, this current is pushed 
northward as far as the Kooril Islands. The drift of the Kuro 
Siwo bears the same relation to the western shores of North 
America as that of the Gulf Stream does to Western Europe. 

Direction of the Tide-Wave. — Another common error is 
entertained with regard to the direction of the tide-wave. We are 
usually taught that the tide-wave moves from west to east. That 



104 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

is certainly its general direction. But the law is observed only in 
the broad expanse of the southern oceans : north of the equator the 
rule becomes rather the exception. In the North Atlantic the 
wave moves northward, and bending around the north coast of 
Norway, turns eastward, and is finally lost in the Arctic Ocean. 

Brainard, one of the survivors of the Greely Expedition, made a 
number of interesting discoveries about the direction of the tide- 
wave. At Lady Franklin Bay, the northern station, the tide came 
in from the north. Here the incoming tide was about two degrees 
warmer than the outgoing tide. At Cape Sabine, the southern 
camp, the tide came from the south. This remarkable phenome- 
non General Greely interprets as establishing the insular character 
of Greenland. In his opinion it can be accounted for only by the 
supposition that the water flows around the northern shore of 
Greenland, and, entering Robson Channel, flows southward to 
Hall Basin. 

The Tidal Wave. — The so-called tidal waves, following earth- 
quakes which originate near the sea, should not be confounded 
with the daily tide-waves. So far as origin is concerned they have 
nothing whatever in common. The former are probably caused 
by the oscillation, or up-and-down motion, of the earth's surface 
which takes place when an earthquake occurs under the sea. The 
tidal wave following the earthquake at Arica, a few years since, 
was a fine example of waves of this character. Shortly after the 
first shock the water receded from the anchorage, leaving the 
latter bare. In a few moments, however, an enormous wave esti- 
mated to be thirty or forty feet high came rolling in. The fleet 
which the receding water had left stranded, was picked up and the 
vessels tossed about like egg-shells. The smaller craft were at once 
broken to pieces, and sunk. An English man-of-war held to her 
anchors until the wave began to fall back, but with the outflow of 
water, snapped her cables, and was carried seaward. Another in- 
coming wave caught her astern and sent her to the bottom. 
The United States steamship Wateree escaped more easily. This 
vessel was carried along on the crest of the wave, and gently 



HYDROGRAPHY 105 

stranded on the sand, several miles inland. The use of the word 
1 tidal wave ' to describe such waves as are caused by earthquakes 
is unfortunate and inaccurate. 

Occurrence of the Tide. — As a general thing, we are left to 
infer that there are but two tide-waves a day. This is strictly true 
when the sun and moon are in conjunction, but not at other times. 
When the sun and moon are in opposition, there are four tide- waves, 
— two of the sun and two of the moon. The former are very slight 
and scarcely noticeable except by delicate measurement. As the 
moon swings around into conjunction, the solar and lunar waves 
again blend into one. It is true that the solar wave may be prac- 
tically neglected because of its insignificant size, but the principle 
holds true, and as a matter of consistency it should not be neglected 
when the subject of tides is discussed. 

It is well to impress the fact that the daily occurrence of the 
tides is due, not to the revolution of the moon, but to the daily 
rotation of the earth. If there were no axial rotation of the earth, 
there would be practically but two tides a month. The waves 
revolve around the earth just as though they were fastened to the 
moon, but the diurnal feature of the tide is the result of the earth's 
turning on its axis within the tide-waves. 

In describing the abnormally high tides which are found in 
nearly all V-shaped estuaries which face the tide-wave, we almost 
always fall back on the Bay of Fundy as an example. As a matter 
of fact, the tides of this bay are high, but there are fifty places 
along the coast of Maine where tide-water is nearly as high as in 
the bay named. The extreme high tide is not found in the Bay 
of Fundy, but in Minas (or Mines) Basin, a long, narrow estuary 
which is an arm of the Bay of Fundy. Here the tide rises occa- 
sionally to a height of eighty feet. 

The famous Maelstrom off the coast of Norway is quite as inter- 
esting an object as the mythical Lurlei, but, unlike the latter, the 
myths of the Maelstrom are too often recounted as geographical 
facts. That our accounts of this local current are drawn mainly 
from the myths of the dark ages is hardly necessary to say. As 



106 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

a matter of fact, it is by no means so dangerous to navigation 
as the Hellgate (formerly Horllgatt, i.e., whirling strait) in East 
River, which it somewhat resembles. The Maelstrom is a tidal 
current formed by the peculiar shape of the small chain of rocks 
belonging to the LorToden Islands. Two of the islands of the 
chain form a hook-shaped curve which faces the flowing tide. As 
the tide rushes into the constricted passage, the circular shape of 
the basin gives the water a choppy, and at the same time a slight 
vorticose motion. At all seasons the water is more or less turbu- 
lent at the change of the tide, but at times of excessive tides the 
Maelstrom becomes a very rough and a dangerous place to small 
craft. With a strong northwest wind it becomes still more peril- 
ous. The water is lashed into scud, and the swirling currents are 
too powerful for any but the stoutest of vessels. The traditional 
' howling of demons,' like the song of the Lurlei, of course refer to 
the sounds produced by the winds and the noise of the swirling 
water. 

The Sargasso Seas. — The great accumulations of marine 
plants commonly known as the Sargasso Seas have long held a 
position of importance in school-book literature to which they are 
hardly entitled. In general, they are asserted to originate in the 
vast swirls of the ocean currents north and south of the equator, 
in both the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. These enormous 
eddies, it is asserted, by their vorticose motion, carry masses of 
seaweed to their respective centres, making what the early Spanish 
sailors called Zargazzo or Grassy Seas. 

That there are great accumulations of marine plants in the 
regions indicated is certain, but that they are due to the vorticose 
movement of ocean currents is by no means an established fact. 
Marine plants thrive only in moderately warm, still waters. They 
are therefore most abundant in the regions of calms, and in shel- 
tered parts of the ocean. The writer has several times crossed the 
Sargasso Sea southeast of the United States, and in every instance 
vast though not unusually large masses of seaweed were in sight. 
An inspection of a good physical map of the ocean will show that 



HYDROGRAPHY 107 

the Sargasso Seas correspond with the calms of the tropics, and 
there is strong evidence that they move north and south along 
with the calms. 

Thick accumulations of marine plants are common on the 
Pacific coast of the Western Continent, along all leeward coasts, 
and in channels bathed by warm waters. Indeed, it would be 
difficult to find denser mats of seaweed than those which occur 
in San Pedro Bay and Santa Barbara Channel during the summer 
months. The same is also the case with the leeward shores of 
nearly all tropical and sub-tropical regions. Now, although it is 
not impossible that the vorticose movement of ocean currents 
may be a factor in the accumulation of marine plants in the locali- 
ties known as the Sargasso Seas, yet it seems more reasonable to 
hold that comparatively still waters and high temperature, and not 
the vorticose motion of ocean currents, are the chief causes. 

Lakes. — Another common assertion having a place in geo- 
graphical literature is, that ' lakes which have no outlets are salt.' 
Now, it is reasonably correct to assert that salt lakes have no out- 
lets ; but to reverse the statement is most certainly untrue. A 
large majority of those lakes which have no outlets are fresh. 
Whether or not a lake without an outlet is salt, depends almost 
entirely on the character of the soil over which its feeders flow. 
If a lake occurs in a region where the soil contains little or no 
sodium, potassium, or magnesium salts, its waters will not become 
saline, simply because there are no soluble salts in the soil. There 
are thousands of such lakes and ponds in the upper basin of the 
Mississippi River. In some of them the water is ' hard,' because 
of the amount of limestone which is characteristic of this valley • 
but scarcely one is salt. 

On the other hand, if the depression in which the lake is situated 
is in the midst of an alkaline formation, its waters are pretty apt 
to be impregnated with mineral salts, or else they will become so 
in time. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, is salt because the soil of its 
basin is highly impregnated with chlorides and sulphates of the 
alkaline metals. Lake Tchad, in Africa, is fresh because its basin 



108 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

contains a soil which is either free from mineral salts, or else pro- 
tected by a layer of alluvium, which prevents a solution of the 
salts. Occasionally, in very wet years, Lake Tchad overflows its 
basin-rim, and the waters are lost in the desert to the northeast. 
But the overflow has little effect on the quality of the water so far 
as its saltness is concerned, for the lake is at such seasons an im- 
mense tule-swamp covering an area of nearly 50,000 square 
miles. The secret of its freshness is that all its feeders flow 
through an alluvial soil which contains little or no soluble mineral 
matter. 

In the Great Basin of Nevada, Utah, and California we find a 
still more perplexing problem. Here are several lakes — Pyr- 
amid Lake, and Humboldt and Carson Sink — whose waters may 
be called fresh, while these of Mono, Owens, and Great Salt lakes 
are loaded with saline matter. A careful study of this lake region 
has led to the discovery that it is subject to alternate periods of 
excess and of deficiency of rainfall. It is not known when each 
period occurs, but that there are such periods is certain. At a no 
greatly distant time in the past this basin was covered with two 
large inland seas, each considerably more than half the size of 
Lake Superior. Several of the old shore lines, which marked the 
periods of maximum height of water, are still visible along the 
slopes of their basins. 1 When the period of drought came, many 
of these lakes dried up ; others did not. Great Salt Lake and 
Owens Lake did not, and their waters are to-day exceedingly 
briny. The waters of Pyramid Lake and Humboldt Sink dis- 
appeared, leaving a thick crust of crystalline salts in their beds. 
But this mat of saline matter was quickly covered with the dust 
and detritus with which the Washoe l zephyrs ' darken the air. 
So when the dry lake beds began to fill again, their basins were 
practically free from saline matter, and thus these lakes are to-day 
practically fresh. 

1 It is a singular and noteworthy fact, that the shore lines on certain islands 
in the middle of these lakes are considerably higher than the contemporary 
marginal shore lines. 



HYDROGRAPHY 109 

In our text-books we sometimes make four classes of lakes, 
viz. : — 

Those having inlets, but no outlets. 

Those having outlets, but no inlets. 

Those having both inlets and outlets. 

Those having neither inlets nor outlets. 

Such a classification is the acme of nonsense ; it has nothing 
whatever to recommend it. A better way is to classify them as 
those which have outlets and those which have none. A more 
sensible way than either, is to divide them into fresh lakes and 
salt lakes. Still another classification is frequently used by the 
geographer, — glacial lakes and playa, or steppe lakes. The 
former includes such lakes as have been shaped by the action of 
ice and running water ; the latter, the shallow pools, swamps, and 
marshes which are frequently found in plains. 

The primary idea to be kept in mind concerning the lake is, that 
it is a depression. If more water flows into the hollow than evap- 
orates from it, a lake is formed ; otherwise there is no permanent 
body of water. As the water collects, the basin continues to fill, 
either until the evaporation just balances the supply, or until it 
overflows at the lowest part of the rim. 

Lakes of glacial origin may usually be distinguished by their 
shape and the direction of their lines of greatest length. An in- 
spection of a well-drawn drainage map shows that such lakes are 
long and comparatively narrow. Their lines of greatest length 
are nearly parallel, or possibly radial. A good map of the State of 
New York, the New England States, and still better, of Sweden, 
will teach a most interesting lesson. 

It is quite common to read the assertion that the Caspian and 
Aral seas are below the level of the ocean. This is certainly true 
of the Caspian, but equally untrue of the Aral Sea. The former is 
eighty-four feet below the level of the ocean ; the latter about fifty 
feet above it. There is some little evidence to show that the two 
seas were formerly connected, and a chain of shallow pools stretches 
between the two lakes. In the case of the Black and the Caspian 



110 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

Sea the evidence is much stronger, for the old silted channel may- 
be traced nearly the whole distance. Many geologists believe that 
the Caspian Sea once reached much farther north than at present, 
and opened into the White Sea. This theory is by no means im- 
probable, and a contour map of the region in question is an ex- 
ceedingly interesting study, with this theory in view. It is well to 
bear in mind that this is as yet a matter of theory. 

Another commonly misapplied term is the ' lagoon.' We fre- 
quently use this word as the synonyme of ' lake,' but this is not its 
proper use in modern geography. The lagoon is essentially that 
part of the sea or other body of water which has been nearly 
enclosed by wave-formed islands. Along the eastern coast of the 
United States we find lagoons wherever the coast is low and level. 
Albemarle Sound and Pamplico Sound are fine examples, and 
there are many others equally striking along the Gulf coast. 
The lagoon and sand-spit are interesting studies in physical geog- 
raphy, because they show how additions to the area of a low coast 
plain are commonly made. The rivers deposit their loads of silt 
into the sea just off shore. The combined action of waves and 
currents pile it up in the long, narrow spits, which enclose the 
lagoon. In time the lagoon fills up and becomes covered with 
verdure, and then the process is again repeated a little farther 
seaward. 

Rivers. — The increase in the width of a river or other stream 
of water in its downward course and the alleged cause therefor, 
are so well known that the question of its accuracy is rarely chal- 
lenged. Perhaps ninety-nine in one hundred, if asked the cause 
of the increase in volume, would unhesitatingly reply that it was 
due solely to the uniting of smaller streams and tributaries with 
the main river. That this is true so far as it goes cannot be 
denied, but the explanation does not go far enough. In the 
upper courses of rivers the chief increase in volume is due quite 
as much to the seapage from the bed and banks of the river as to 
the inflowing of tributaries. That the seapage is enormous, every 
miner who has ' prospected ' along a mountain torrent can testify, 






HYDROGRAPHY 111 

for a prospect hole fills with water just as quickly as a newly sunk 
well does. The great increase in volume may be readily observed 
wherever a railway winds along a river canon. In crossing the 
Wasatch Mountains on the Denver and Rio Grande Railway the 
train crawls slowly up the grade from the mouth of Spanish Fork 
to Soldier Summit. The distance is scarcely more than twenty- 
five miles, yet Spanish Fork near the summit of the divide is a 
stream not more than a foot wide, while at the mouth of the canon 
it is more than a rod in width. Yet from summit to base it does 
not receive a single tributary. Its entire increase is due to the 
seapage from the rocks and soil through which its course lies. 
The same description applies equally to Price River, whose source 
is a few rods from that of Spanish Fork, on the opposite side of 
the divide. Similar examples are by no means rare; they can 
be observed in almost every locality, if one will only look for them. 

On our maps it is customary to chart a river with a fine line 
at the source, widening the line towards the mouth. This is in the 
main correct, but it has perhaps given rise to the idea that a river 
constantly increases in width from source to mouth — a conclusion 
by no means true. In the majority of instances a river has its 
greatest width along its middle course. The Mississippi, for in- 
stance, eighteen hundred miles from its mouth, has an average 
width of about 5400 feet, while at New Orleans, near its mouth, 
its width is less than 2500 feet — a statement somewhat surprising 
when we consider that in the meantime it has received the waters 
of the Ohio, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers. The same is 
true of many other rivers, especially those which do not flow into 
tidal estuaries. 

The decrease in width is due to several causes. Rivers flowing 
through dry and hot regions lose enormously by evaporation, 1 and 
there are many well-known instances where their waters disap- 
pear entirely from this cause alone. Another common cause is the 
deepening of the channel, which thus permits an increased volume 

1 The evaporation is not only from the surface of the stream, but from the 
entire width of ground saturated by it. 



112 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

to pass through a narrower passage. But the chief cause is to be 
found in the fact that in the lower course of a river the stream 
flows between banks it has itself made, and having made them it 
can as easily cut them away. Wherever the volume of the water 
is too great to flow between banks, it sends off tributaries instead 
of receiving them. Thus, along the lower Mississippi the offshoots 
are so numerous that only an expert pilot can pick out the main 
channel : and one can travel thousands of miles on the Amazon or 
the Madeira without ever touching the principal stream. 

It is a very general supposition that the divide between two 
rivers is the crest of the mountain-range between them. This is 
commonly not the case. Thus, the sources of the Columbia, 
Klamath, and Pitt rivers are east of the Sierra Nevada and Cas- 
cade Chain of mountains. The Delaware and Susquehanna rivers 
have their head waters west of the main crest of the Appalachian 
Mountains, while the Great Kanawha, a tributary of the Ohio, rises 
east of this crest. 

One of the best examples of a divide is found in the Yellowstone 
Park. Between Yellowstone and Shoshone lakes, at the summit 
of the highland, is a small body of water known as Two-Ocean 
Pond. During times of high water this pond discharges its waters 
from two outlets — one leading into the Yellowstone River and 
thence to the Gulf of Mexico ; the other into the Snake and 
Columbia rivers, and thence into the Pacific Ocean. 

We sometimes take pride in figuring dimensions to a closeness 
which is really an affectation of accuracy. It is rarely the case, 
however, that river-lengths are expressed to the fraction of a mile, 
but this is occasionally done. Now, such a proceeding is not 
only misleading, but it is absolutely incorrect. It is misleading, 
because it assumes that a river has a constant and fixed length. 
It is erroneous, because none but a few of the shorter streams in 
thickly populated centres have been so accurately surveyed that 
their lengths can be given to within a fraction of a mile. Large 
rivers like the Mississippi and Missouri are constantly varying in 
length. During seasons of drought the volume of water in the 



HYDROGRAPHY 113 

Mississippi is so reduced that its current is considerably checked. 
It then must spread out and lengthen the sinuous curves for which 
its lower course is noted. But with the coming of the spring floods 
its current increases, and it begins to cut away the bars of sedi- 
ment it dropped in its way, and goes to work straightening out its 
channel. In more than one instance the Mississippi has, by cut- 
ting across the neck of a long loop, shortened its course by twenty 
or thirty miles at a time. 

All rivers flowing through great alluvial plains are thus erratic in 
their courses. During past ages the Mississippi must have flowed 
in nearly all the lower parts of the broad valley which bears its 
name, building its bed and banks higher than the surrounding 
land, and then cutting them away; lengthening its loops and 
curves in time of low water, and shortening them in time of flood. 
An instance even more remarkable than that of the Mississippi is 
the Hoang, a river of the Chinese Empire. This river because of 
the sudden and unexpected shifting of its channel is known as 
the Sorrow of Han, deriving this name from that of the province 
through which it flows. In 1852, it broke through its banks near 
Kai Fong, and abandoning its former course, flowed in a north- 
easterly direction, finally pouring its waters into the Gulf of Pe- 
chelee, at a distance of three hundred miles from its old mouth. 
By this catastrophe 2000 cities and towns were destroyed, and 
more than 2,000,000 people perished. 



114 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 



IX. 

METEOROLOGY. 

Heat. — It is not quite correct to assume that we receive our 
heat directly from the sun. On the contrary, the sun warms the 
earth, and the earth in turn warms the air. Our judgment of a 
warm day depends not on the intensity of the sun's rays, but on 
the temperature of the air. The truth of this may be seen by 
using a thermometer whose bulb has been coated with lampblack. 
When a thermometer of this kind is exposed to the sun, or even 
to a cloudy sky, the mercury mounts up to 120 or 130 . This 
extreme temperature is observed, although with an ordinary ther- 
mometer it may register below the freezing-point. Some years since 
me author was engaged in making meteorological observations just 
above the base of Mount Hood. Two thermometers were used. 
One, a blackened-bulb instrument, was exposed to the sun ■ the 
other, an ordinary thermometer, was shaded. The former stood 
at 112 ; the latter at 28 . The sun's rays were hot enough to 
blister the face ; the air was so cold that not a flake of snow 
melted except around the sun-charred trunks of the fir trees. 

Atmospheric Moisture. — Almost invariably we see the state- 
ment, ' Warm air will hold more moisture than cold air.' This 
is probably the easiest way of saying that more water exists in the 
state of vapor at a high, than at a low temperature. As a matter 
of fact, the vapor of water is always present in the atmosphere ; 
but it is equally true that the atmosphere has nothing to do with 
the moisture. The latter would be present whether there was any 
atmosphere or not. 

The various elements of the air are independent of one another. 
Their relative proportions, aqueous vapor excepted, however, are 
constant. It is because of the constant changing of the percentage 



METEOROLOGY 1.15 

of the vapor of water that we are apt to consider the latter as an 
intruding element in the atmosphere. When the temperature 
rises, a certain amount of water at the surface of the earth is 
vaporized, and exists in a gaseous state ; when the temperature 
lowers, it is condensed. The gaseous water, or vapor, floats around 
in the atmosphere, it is true, but the other elements of the atmos- 
phere do not affect it in any manner. It is a well-established 
law, moreover, that one vapor or gas is practically a vacuum 
for another, and this law holds true of air and aqueous vapor. 
The amount of water mingled with the air in the form of vapor 
depends on temperature alone. 

A similar and equally inconsistent statement makes the winds 
responsible for the transference of aqueous vapor from one part 
of the earth's surface to another. Thus we frequently read that 
' warm ocean winds carry moisture from the hot, tropical regions 
to the cooler temperate latitudes, where it is precipitated in the 
form of rain.' As in the preceding paragraph we are led to believe 
that the atmosphere is the responsible agent ; and herein is the 
error. The moisture is borne with the wind, because a part of it*; 
but the wind, per se, has nothing whatever to do with its move- 
ment from one place to another. Each component element of the 
atmosphere is a vapor which follows the laws that govern all vapors. 
Each expands or increases its bulk when heated, and the overflow 
passes to temperate latitudes. The currents of aqueous vapor are 
similar in force and direction to those of the atmosphere, but there 
would be currents of aqueous vapor whether there were any other 
atmosphere or not, and the currents of vapor would have about 
the same direction and distribution as they now have. The con- 
ventional way of treating evaporation and the transference of vapor 
as atmospheric phenomena is perhaps easier than the correct ex- 
planation, but it is a grave error to neglect the true explanation 
because it is more difficult. 

The precipitation of moisture in the form of rain is commonly 
ascribed to the cooling of moisture-laden winds. Noting the fact 
that the moisture and the other elements of the atmosphere are 



116 MODERN FACTS AND ANCFENT FANCIES 

vapors which are independent of one another, the explanation is 
mainly correct. The manner in which the cooling of the vapor 
takes place is not always consistently explained. Wherever mois- 
ture blows from the ocean landward, a large proportion is precipi- 
tated in the form of rain. In this case the cooling and precipitation 
of the moisture is generally charged to the high mountain-ranges 
which border most coasts. 

That mountain-ranges cool and precipitate considerable vapor 
is certainly true, but the main cause is the low temperature of the 
air over the greater area of land in temperate latitudes. The rain- 
bearing clouds which flood the plains of the Amazon come from 
the east, and there are no mountains along the coast to precipitate 
their moisture. Along the Chilian coast, however, the Andes are 
the chief agents which precipitate the moisture, for here is one of 
the few localities where the mountains rise higher than the rain- 
clouds. 

In the broad expanse of the ocean where most of the rain falls, 
there are neither mountains or other land masses to cool and pre- 
cipitate the moisture. Here the cooling is effected by the rising 
of the vapor above the surface. All vapors or gases expand as 
they rise from the surface of the earth, because of the lessened 
attraction of gravitation. But vapors cool by expansion, and the 
vapor of water is not an exception to the rule. A precipitation of 
rain, therefore, immediately follows. This law explains the almost 
constant rains within the rain-belt. 

Winds. — In discussing the theory of winds we usually say 
that " the air in the equatorial regions, becoming warm, ' rises,' and 
colder air ' rushes' in to fill its place." Now, the warm air does 
not ' rise ' nor does the cold air ' rush.' On the contrary, the cold 
air, because of its greater specific gravity, flows towards the equa- 
tor and lifts or floats the lighter warm air. The warm air is 
specifically lighter because the heat expands it. 

It is for this reason warm air is lighter than cold. The ' rising ' 
of the warm air may be illustrated in this way. Put a chip of 
wood in the bottom of a basin, and pour water into the basin. 



METEOROLOGY 117 

Now the chip does not ' rise ' while the water ' rushes in,' etc. The 
water, because it is heavier, merely floats the chip, and this is what 
actually occurs in the case of the transference of air in equatorial 
regions ; the colder air being the heavier floats the warm air. 

Storms. — There is much confusion in the uses of the word 
' storm ' as applied to the disturbances which are variously known 
as 'cyclones,' 'typhoons,' 'tornadoes,' 'hurricanes,' 'squalls,' etc. 
As used by the professional meteorologist, a storm signifies any 
area of low barometer attended with high wind, rain or snow, 
thunder and lightning, or hail. Very slight areas of low barometer 
which are not accompanied by atmospheric disturbances are usually 
called ' depressions.' 

Cyclones or typhoons are whirling storms which originate in the 
sea, and do not visit the land except as they blow over an island 
or touch the shore of a continent. The cyclone usually originates 
in the torrid zone within ten or fifteen degrees of the equator. 
The path of the cyclone or typhoon is approximately a parabolic 
curve ; in the Northern Hemisphere it moves from southeast to 
northwest, and as it approaches temperate latitudes, gradually 
shifts about and travels towards the northeast. The whirl of the 
wind is in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch. 
In the Southern Hemispheres all motions are the reverse of those 
in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones are most prevalent along 
the course of the Gulf Stream, the Kuro Siwo, and the southern 
coast of Asia. The diameter of the whirl varies from fifty to two 
or three hundred miles, and the storm will often travel several 
thousand miles before expending its energy. The velocity of the 
wind sometimes exceeds one hundred miles an hour. 

Tornadoes are whirling storms which are almost always confined 
to the land. The tornado invariably moves in direction from the 
southwest to the northeast quadrant in the Northern Hemisphere. 
The tornado-cloud, at its centre, takes the form of rapidly whirl- 
ing ' funnel-cloud.' This funnel-cloud is the ' eye ' of the storm, 
or vacuous centre of the whirl, and the vacuum is the result of the 
extremely rapid rotatory or whirling motion. The destructive vio- 



118 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

lence of the tornado is confined usually to the immediate path 
where the funnel- cloud drags along the ground. With scarcely an 
exception the tornado occurs in the afternoon, seldom occurring 
before three o'clock, and rarely, if ever, after six o'clock. In a 
few instances, however, a tornado has been known to continue its 
course until an hour or more after sunset. Tornadoes are more 
frequent in the great plains of the United States than any other 
known part of the world. 

It is thought that most rotatory storms are due to the overheat- 
ing of the air next the earth's surface, it thus becoming relatively 
lighter than the cooler air above it. Finally a column of air starts 
upward, and immediately the colder and heavier air, by its greater 
weight, gradually settles to the earth, forcing the warm air next 
the earth through the channel made by the first uprush. As the 
air is forced up the channel it acquires a whirling motion that soon 
becomes rapid enough to create a partial vacuum in the centre. 
The vacuum thus produced is the funnel-cloud of the tornado and 
the chief agent of destruction. The velocity of the whirl is esti- 
mated to exceed, at times, 200 miles per hour. The diameter of 
the whirl varies from a few yards to many rods. Its direction in 
the Northern Hemisphere is contrary to that of the hands of the 
watch. The path of the tornado does not commonly exceed fifty 
miles in length ; that of the cyclone of the sea may be several 
thousand. 

The hurricane is properly a straight wind, although the cyclones 
of the West Indies and the typhoons of the Japan coast are often 
called hurricanes. The essential feature of the hurricane is 
velocity, and at the summit of Mount Washington a hurricane 
having a velocity of 200 miles an hour has been recorded. 1 The 
hurricane may occur during any season of the year or at any time 
of day. Its duration may be a few minutes or several days. It 
may blow from any quarter in a path varying from a few miles to 
a thousand in width. The blizzards of Dakota, the Chinook winds 
of Oregon and Washington, the northers of Texas, and the simooms 

1 This storm was accompanied by a temperature of — 50 . 



METEOROLOGY 119 

of the Great Desert may properly be called hurricanes, but whirl- 
ing-storms should not be included among them. 

Nearly all storms, whether of rain, snow, or wind, except local 
showers, hail-storms, thunder-storms, and squalls, are cyclonic in 
their general character, but lack the violence which characterizes 
the typical cyclone. They consist of an area of low barometer 
towards which the wind blows from all directions. Their direction 
is generally from the southwest to the northeast quadrant in the 
Northern Hemisphere. In the United States there are three gen- 
eral storm-paths which the great majority of storms follow. 

Many, if not most of the storms sweeping over the United States 
originate in Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming. Sometimes their 
paths bend considerably southward, and include the territory lying 
as far south as the 35th parallel; but the greater number are in- 
cluded between the 40th and 50th parallels. The storms of this 
class are by far the most important of those which sweep over the 
Great Central Plain, and so many of them originate in Dakota and 
Montana that this area is facetiously spoken of as the ' weather 
factory ' of the United States. 

Another important storm-centre is the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Caribbean Sea. The storms originating in this locality commonly 
travel up the eastern coast of the United States, gradually turning 
eastward somewhere along the New England coast. Storms of this 
class are rarely found west of the Appalachian Mountains. These 
storms belong properly to the cyclones which follow the Gulf Stream. 

The storms of the Pacific coast originate in the Pacific Ocean. 
Usually they travel in a westerly course, sometimes crossing the 
Rocky Mountains, but not infrequently taking a southerly course 
down the coast. In a number of instances it has been strongly 
suspected that a storm travelling in this direction crosses the 
Mexican Plateau to the Gulf of Mexico, where it gathers fresh 
strength and reappears as a fierce Atlantic cyclone. In several 
instances a storm which has been marked by an unusually low 
barometer has come from some unknown part of the Pacific, 
crossed the United States, continued across the Atlantic, and 



120 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

finally disappeared in the great plains of the Russian Empire. It 
is well to remember that all general storms are rotatory, and that 
they differ from the typical cyclones in velocity and severity only. 

Much has been said in late years about the electrical origin of 
cyclones and tornadoes. Not a few people are firmly convinced 
that rotatory storms are the direct result of some supposed electri- 
cal inequilibrium, inasmuch as lightning and other electrical dis- 
plays frequently accompany tornadoes. Since the establishment 
of the Weather Bureau, the subject has been closely studied by 
Ferrel, Hazen, Finlay, and others, with results which fail wholly to 
establish any relation of cause and effect between electricity and 
tornadoes. 

The Seasons. — In most books for pupils' use we are informed 
that there are four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, 
and usually the pupil is left to infer not only that these seasons 
obtain in all parts of the world, but also that there are no other 
climatological divisions of the year. Such a conception is very 
misleading, for in only a few parts of the world are the divisions 
of the year so considered. In parts of the United States and 
Europe the year is thus divided, but unfortunately the months in 
each division do not correspond. In the United States, for 
instance, the spring months are March, April, and May • while in 
Great Britain they are April, May, and June, and so with the 
remaining seasons of the year. It would perhaps be better to 
consider the equinoxes and solstices as the beginnings of seasons, 
but this is not the plan popularly followed. Furthermore, in many 
parts of the world there are but two seasons, the rainy and the 
dry. In San Francisco, for instance, where the difference between 
the average summer and winter temperatures is less than ten 
degrees, the division of the year into the ordinary seasons is an 
absurdity. Within the torrid zone, where the temperature is that 
of perpetual summer, the only divisions of the year are those which 
are marked by the prevalence or absence of rain, and there may 
be either two or four seasons, according as one is near the tropic 
of Capricorn or the equator. The rain-belt passes back and forth 



METEOROLOGY 121 

with the apparent motion of the sun, and along the northern coast 
of South America there are two rainy and two dry seasons. In 
the frigid zones the only seasons are manifestly those of day or 
summer and night or winter. It is well to bear in mind, also, that 
the seasons of the Northern are the reverse of those in the South- 
ern Hemisphere. This is true not only of those seasons marked 
by change of temperature, but also of those distinguished by the 
precipitation of moisture. 

Glaciers. — No other subject of research has excited so much 
discussion, wise and otherwise, as the causes of the motions of 
glaciers, especially such as are found in the valley of the Alps, the 
Cascade Range, and the Alaskan Mountains. Upon the main facts 
attending the glacial motion there is quite a general agreement 
that the glacier flows very much like a river, its current being most 
rapid at the upper surface in the centre, and slowest at the sides 
and bottom. It adapts itself to all inequalities of surface as does 
a river, accelerating its rate in narrow or constricted passages, and 
retarding it in broad, shallow places. In other words, the glacier 
of the narrow valley is no more nor less than a river of ice, behav- 
ing in almost every respect like a river of water. 

The question as to hoiv it moves is the one concerning which 
no little acerbity has been developed. The following opinions, 
held by scientists of high standing, were impartially collected by 
Professor Prestwich of Oxford. 

' Louis Agassiz supposed the motion was due to the infiltration 
of water into the fissures, cavities, and minute crevices in the ice, 
and its subsequent freezing within the glacier ; and that this pro- 
duced an expansion of the mass by which the glacier was pushed 
forward.' 

' Mr. W. Hopkins considered that gravity was the main cause, 
since all glaciers in motion appear to repose on surfaces of sen- 
sible inclination to the horizon. The least mean inclination of the 
bed of any glacier in motion is about 3 , which gives a fall of about 
one foot in twenty.' 

Neither of these hypotheses, however, explain how the ice is 



122 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

held together, and adapts itself to the inequalities of its channel. 
To account for this, Professor James Forbes supposed ' ice to be 
capable of changing its form under the pressure to which it is sub- 
jected, in a manner similar to that in which a viscous mass changes 
its form under the same circumstances. It was found that the 
central portions of a glacier move considerably faster than its lat- 
eral portions, just as a viscous mass would move along a trough 
inclined at a small angle to the horizon; and, moreover, it was 
obvious that the general mass of a glacier did so change its form 
so as to accommodate itself to the changing dimensions of the 
valley down which it moved.' * 

Professor Forbes also found that the upper surface of a glacier 
moved faster than the lower surface. In one instance it was shown 
that the upper part moved twice as fast as the lower part. It was 
concluded, therefore, there were two motions, one due to sliding, 
and the other to viscosity. 

' An experiment of Faraday's, who had observed that two pieces 
of ice in perfect contact would freeze together so as to become 
one perfectly continuous mass, though the surrounding tempera- 
ture should be much higher than 3 2°, suggested to Professor Tyn- 
dall a remarkable property of glacier ice. He proved by further 
experiment the extreme facility and rapidity with which a piece 
of common ice, after being broken and crushed into numberless 
fragments, will reunite into one continuous mass of transparent 
ice. It is this process which has been termed regelation, that 
re-cements and holds together the glacier ice, notwithstanding the 
rending and Assuring to which it is subject. For ice, though plas- 
tic under pressure, is not so under tension; and this is the point 
which the theory of plasticity did not explain. While a viscous 
body, like bitumen, may be drawn out in filaments by tension, 
ice, far from stretching in this way, breaks like glass under such 
action.' 

' Canon Mosely considered heat to be the cause of motion. 
He observed that a sheet of lead placed on a plane surface, in- 
clined less than would enable it to slide by gravity alone, yet 



METEOROLOGY 123 

tended nevertheless to move downwards when subjected to vari- 
ations in temperature. The cause of this is that, when the lead 
expands by an increase of heat, gravity opposes its upward motion, 
while it facilitates its downward motion. When the temperature 
is lowered, the lead contracts ; and here again, in consequence of 
gravity, the strain is downwards. Consequently, with every change 
of temperature there was a slight displacement of the lead down- 
wards, with a force such that the nails with which it was fastened 
were drawn out of the wood. Canon Mosely contended that an 
action analogous to this was the proximate cause of the descent 
of glaciers ; that the expansion and contraction of the ice pro- 
duced by the heat of the sun on the inclined surfaces on which 
it moved, have no other than a progressive downward movement.' 

Not unfrequently the statement is made that glaciers are found 
'in the highest parts of high mountains,' or that they are 'always 
above the limit of perpetual snow.' Such assertions as these are 
very misleading. The altitude at which glaciers are found de- 
pends almost wholly on latitude. In low latitudes they are usually 
at great heights, but in high latitudes they are rarely at a great 
height above the sea-level. The Greenland, the Alaskan, and the 
Norwegian glaciers nearly all terminate in the sea, and have their 
beginnings at no great distance above it. The glaciers of the Alps 
and Himalaya Mountains, on the contrary, are at considerable 
heights. The upper parts of permanent glaciers are above the 
limits of perpetual snow, it is true, but the lower parts are usually 
pushed far below the snow-line, and, in the Alps, well into the 
region of cultivated fields. 

Icebergs. — It is commonly inferred either by statement or by 
inference that icebergs carry large boulders, gravel, and other de- 
tritus at their bottoms. These, in the case of the Greenland ice- 
bergs are finally deposited off the Newfoundland coast on what is 
known as the Grand Banks. More than one book has an iceberg 
pictured in full, carrying a load of round, water-worn boulders at 
the bottom, and in order to show the process of bank-making, 
boulders are conveniently dropping from the ice. This is cer- 



124 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

tainly a very pleasing theory, and one which never fails to interest 
children. Let us look at it in the light of facts. In the first place, 
icebergs do frequently carry boulders, but the latter are carried, not 
in the lower part of the berg, but on the upper surface. Occasion- 
ally boulders will melt a passage into the interior of the berg, but 
these are exceptional cases. The berg does not pick up boulders, 
but the latter roll down the sides of the slope and fall on the berg 
when it is a part of a glacier. Secondly, if the iceberg picked up 
its load of boulders and carried them at the lower part, the latter 
would never be carried so far south as the Grand Banks ; on the 
contrary, they would be dropped long before the berg had passed 
through Davis Strait. That the Grand Banks have been built of 
the gravel and boulders which have been transported from the 
Greenland moraines is certainly among the possibilities, but at 
present it can be considered as a theory only, and not as an estab- 
lished fact. 

It is a commonly accepted assertion, also, that all glacial boulders 
and till present the planed surfaces scored with parallel lines, which 
we so commonly see pictured as witnesses of the peculiar erosive 
action of glaciers. It is true that such planed boulders bear in- 
dubitable evidence of glacial action, but they are by no means 
common or easy to find. Most of the glacial till and gravel has 
no characteristics that distinguish it from ordinary water-formed 
gravel, and it is only when an angular fragment is held by the ice, 
as in a vise, that one or more of its surfaces is planed off and scored 
with the parallel scratches which reveal its character. 

While it is generally known that the icebergs of the North Atlan- 
tic Ocean are born of glaciers of the west coast of Greenland, it is 
a matter of surprise to find how comparatively insignificant in 
extent is that part of the coast where the icebergs are calved. 
Along the 1200 miles of explored coast, the results of the Danish 
explorations show that only about a score of the glaciers extend- 
ing any distance inland produce large icebergs, and of this number 
less than a dozen are glaciers of the first rank. The huge icebergs 
that are so menacing to the New York and Liverpool steamships 



METEOROLOGY 125 

are not the progeny of Humboldt Glacier in Kane Basin, but of 
the larger glaciers between the southern shore of Disco Bay and 
Upernavik. It is in the fjords of this part of the coast that ice- 
streams with a frontage of three miles and a thickness of 1200 
feet were observed pushing their enormous masses down a slope 
of less than one hundred feet to the mile, at a rate of more than 
thirty feet per day. 



126 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 



X. 

HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY. 

Not a few instructive lessons may be drawn from a study of the 
ordinary geographical names with which every pupil becomes 
more or less familiar ; for in many instances, the hidden meanings 
of such words picture a far more vivid story than will be portrayed 
in any verbal definition. Thus in the ' island ' we find a body 
of land set in, or surrounded by water, just as the eye is set in the 
face. The common form of the word conceals this conception 
however ; for the word has no relation to isle, but comes from the 
Saxon word 'ey.' The older English form ^'land or ^j-land is in 
every way preferable to the modern form. We find traces of it in 
Angles^)', the island of the Angles ; in Mersey, the island of the 
sea ; in Eywoxt, north island ; in Batters<?<2, St. Peter's island ; and 
in Orkn<?y and Far<?<?. 

The ' cape ' carries us back to the time of the Roman invasion, 
and is one of the first Latin words {caput, a head) grafted upon 
the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Even now the word ' head ' is used 
along the coast of the British Isles ten times for every once that 
we find the pretentious intruder. The pointed or hooked shape 
of the cape was an excellent reason for using the word ' ness ' or 
nose in its place, and we find dozens of instances of its use in such 
words as Sheerness, Yxwzxness, Shoebury;?*?^, Fineness, etc. In 
another form we find it in Grists. A more pronounced form we 
find in ' Naze,' which is used both on the English and the Scan- 
dinavian coasts. Could we unravel it, the use of this word on the 
English coast conceals an interesting history ; namely, the incur- 
sions of the Danes, whom the Angles and the Saxons called in to 
settle a tribal quarrel, which was, after all, only a repetition of the 
cats, the cheese, and the monkey. Among other synonymes of 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 127 

cape, we find point, bill, hook, and mull. The first name needs 
no explanation. ' Hook ' applies to the long wave-formed sand- 
spits curved into shape by shore-currents ; ' bill ' has also a similar 
meaning. * Butt ' is used in Scotland to designate a high promon- 
tory, and does not differ much in meaning from the Spanish- 
American * butte ' (pronounced bute) , which is applied to sharp, 
conical mountains. 

The word ' coast ' has been so much diverted from its original 
meaning that it is hard to trace the history of the word. Prima- 
rily it meant a rib (from the Latin casta, a rib), but now it refers 
to the edge or strip of lowland bordering the sea. Sometimes we 
now use it loosely instead of slope, but an inspection of almost any 
map will show that a drainage slope is quite a different thing. It 
is not incorrect, however, to use the word to designate almost 
any plain bordering an ocean, or a large body of water. Thus we 
have the Zanzibar coast, the Malabar coast, etc. Formerly a coast 
was a boundary between two countries, 1 and in this sense it is not 
difficult to understand how a rib or ridge of highland might easily 
be so designated. 

Although the English language is so rich in names of the various 
indentations of the coast, we have had to borrow from the Latin 
the name which applies to a strip of land almost surrounded by 
water, and from the Greek the narrow strip of land which joins 
the two larger bodies. The word 'peninsula' (pene- insula) is lit- 
erally almost an island, 2 while in the mother tongue, the ' isthmus,' 
although at first any neck or passage, finally became the name of 
the narrow strip of land which joined Peloponnesus to the main- 
land. It may seem strange that we were compelled to go to other 
languages for these words, but a moment's reflection will convince 
us that there are no pronounced examples of the things themselves 
in the British Isles, and hence their names have not been perpet- 
uated in English. 

1 In Scripture it is nearly always so used, as may be seen in the 15th chap- 
tcr of Joshua. 

2 Cf. the French presqif isle, and the German halb inset. 



128 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

We frequently find traces of the home life of our English ances- 
tors wrapped up in the proper names with which we are intimately 
acquainted. The suffix ' ton ' takes us back to the time when the 
Saxon farmer surrounded his holding of land with a tun or hedge, 
and in time the land thus enclosed became his ' town,' and, as the 
farm and its village became a thickly peopled centre, we still find 
the old name clinging to it. Thus St. Botolph's town became 
Eos/072 j the town by the sea, Mer ton. In a similar manner, 
Norton, Sutton, Easton, and Weston designate the towns which 
are respectively north, south, east, and west of a given locality. 
The suffix ' ham,' equivalent to the German ' heim,' signified that 
it was the home of the possessor. We find abundant traces of this 
word, as the names Oldham, Birmingham, Cheltenham, etc., serve 
to testify. The suffix ' by ' has the same meaning as ' ton ' and 
' ham,' but it is of Danish origin. It is therefore still another wit- 
ness of the incursions of the Danes. Thus we have Rug<£y, the 
town on the rock ; Rig^y, the town on the hill ; Der^y, the town 
on the river or water, and a host of similar names. 1 But while the 
ignoble people of his thrall were content to surround their hold- 
ing with a tun or quick-set hedge, their lordly master enclosed his 
own feoffment with a ' burh,' or fortified wall. Hence we have the 
' burghs,' ' burys,' and ' boroughs ' which are attached to so many 
names all over Western Europe. Occasionally there was to be found 
some plucky fellow who submitted to the thrall of no lord. His 
' burh ' was an acknowledgment of his independence, and we have 
perhaps half a score of Free&urghs and Freifrorgs. Still another 
witness of the incursions of the Norse rovers and adventurers 
remains in the suffixes ' wick,' ' thorpe,' or ' dorf,' and ' garth ' or 
' guard.' The 'garth' (or guard), like the 'ton,' was the place 
girt in. We see a trace of the name in the English yard, and the 
suffix is plainly retained in such names as Applegarth, etc. The 
' thorpe ' or ' trop ' is manifestly Danish, and like the German ' dorf 
or the Saxon ' ton ' signifies a village. Thus we have Oglethorft 

1 Even to this day we have the 'by '-laws; that is, the laws which governed 
the ' by,' or town. 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 129 

(Olga's village) and Winthrop (Wynne's village) . The 'wick' or 
' wich ' also bears testimony to the Norseman's visits. These Norse 
rovers were no better than any other pirates. For the greater part 
they lived near the sheltered bays and indentations, which are to 
this day called ' vigs ' in Norway, and the plucky sailors were finally 
called ' vik '-ings. Nowadays we like to call them sea-kings, but 
they were not kings in any sense of the word ; they were only 
impudent robbers who raided the defenceless ' bys ' and ' tons.' 
There is an occasional ' wich ' or ' wick ' among the sheltered 
inlets in the interior of Great Britain ; but if we look at a good 
map, we shall find that most of them — nearly all, in fact — are on 
the eastern shores. They extend from Harwich in the southeast 
of England to Caithness Wick in the northeast of Scotland. Only 
a few, Warwick, for instance, are found in the interior. 

But even before the Danes or the Kelts had levied their tributes 
upon the Saxons, it is more than likely that the Gaels had estab- 
lished strongholds in England, for their ' duns,' or fortified hills, 
are scattered all over the country. London itself, the city of the 
Lundusi, was at first a fortified stronghold of this kind, built on the 
slight elevation where St. Paul's Cathedral now stands. Thus we 
find Abingdon, the abbey on the hill ; Z>/^kirk, the church on the 
hill ; Dunedin the hill of St. Edwin. We see the same root also 
in Dumfries, Dumbarton, Dundee, the fortified hill on the Tay, 
and in Ercildowi, which, like the German Horselberg, means 
Ursula's Mountain. A more graphic example is the low range 
of hills known as the South Downs. 

While the Norse settlement at the head of the estuary was desig- 
nated as a ' wick ' or ' wich,' the Gaelic stronghold at the mouth 
of the river was an ' inver.' Thus we find such names as Inverness, 
and Inveresk, the town at the mouth of the ' esk,' or river. The 
Welsh ' aber ' has a similar meaning, and every good map of the 
British Isles will show scores of such derivatives. 

But the Roman invasion, as much as any other series of events, 
brought in a flood of new names. The conquered people were 
at no loss for names to apply to their strongholds, as we have 



130 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

already seen, but to these the Romans added the more high-sound- 
ing ' castra,' a word which in the various forms of l Chester,' ' ces- 
ter,' and ' caster,' accordingly as the camp was pitched among the 
Saxons, in the old kingdom of Mercia, or among the Danes, 
has been perpetuated in half a hundred proper names. Thus 
there is Doncaster, the camp on the Don ; Gloucester, the camp of 
the Glevi, or Gloui ; Manchester, the camp on the minch, or 
estuary. The present town of Chester encloses the camp, and the 
old walls as well as parts of the castle are much the same as they 
were when the castle was garrisoned by Roman soldiers. 

Even the most common names of both natural and artificial 
features have come to us directly or indirectly, as a result of the 
Roman invasion. Our word ' street ' l is the equivalent of the 
Latin stradum. The Capitolme Hill of the ancient city has given 
us ' capitol ' ; the Palatine Hill, 'palace.' 'River' comes to us 
from the Latin rivus, a small stream, and we find in it a marked 
similarity to the Italian riva, and the Spanish zxroyo and rio. We 
have unhesitatingly tacked some form of this word on many Eng- 
lish words which have the same meaning, and we are unconscious 
of any tautology in speaking of the River Avon, or the River 
Thames, although both specific names are identical in meaning 
with the generic term. We are also just as careless in speaking 
of the Rio Grande River, the Yang tse Kiang River, the Amoo 
Darya River, or the Wad el Keber (Guadalquiver) River. Yet 
in every instance the italicized word signifies flowing water. 

Professor Grove has shown that the great majority of the names 
of English rivers may be reduced to four in number. They are 
mainly Keltic words, and some of them may be traced clear across 
Europe, as silent witnesses of the westward march of the Kelts or 
Kymri. Some of these names were latinized during the Roman 
occupation ; all of them show the wearing effects of time, for 
words suffer no less from erosion and corrasion than the things 
they designate. The four roots are ' uisge,' 'avon,' 'door,' and 

1 There were no paved streets in Britanny until the Romans constructed 
them. 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 131 

'don.' Rather strangely these roots have been implanted into 
America in but few instances. 

The first form, uisge, has given us the word whisky, 1 and it is 
a withering satire to find that in no other instance does this word 
obtain a place in American geography. We find corrupted forms 
in the Wisk, the Usk, and the Esk. It occurs in i£#eter ; in Ax- 
minster, the church (or minster) on the Ax; and in Oxford, 
which had nothing to do with oxen, 2 but which was simply a ford- 
ing place on the river (ox) . Possibly the Oxus of Asia has the 
same derivation. There is little in Arminster to remind one of 
Aix la Chapelle, but a moment's inspection will show that they 
have a similar if not a common meaning. cZrbridge refers to 
the time when a bridge first spanned the Ux (river), and in a 
similar manner Abridge implies its own meaning. In the Wisht- 
on- Wish we find another form of this root, as also in the broad 
estuary called the Wash. Ouse, Ose, Ousel (little Ouse), and 
Ousburn, are also forms of the same root ; so also is Oise, a small 
stream in France. We find it also in AshhvxTi, the basin (or 
clearing?) of the Ash, and in still another form it occurs in Tham^ 
(Tam eisis, the broad water 3 ) and in the Weser of Germany. 
On the authority of Professor Grove there are more than fifty 
streams, and a multitude of names of places derived from this root. 

From avon we find also many derivatives. The Avon has been 
made famous in the lines : — 

The Avon to the Severn runs; 

The Severn to the sea. 

And Wycliffe's dust shall spread abroad, 

Wide as the waters be. 

We find the same root in Severn and in Afton. It occurs in 
Evatision, the river beset with hedge, and possibly in fva/ihoe. 

1 It originally meant ' water of life,' and in this respect is synonymous with 
the liquor which we call brandy, but which the French call eaic de vie. 

2 The Bosphorus (ySoOs, an ox, and irSpos, a ford) is the only genuine ' ox-ford.' 

3 Formerly the Thames extended in width as far as Sydenham Hills. 



132 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

We find it likewise in //z/zspriick, the bridge across the river ; in 
Rhine (ren afon), the swiftly flowing stream; and in Seine (sen 
afon), the sluggish river. 

Door surpasses even usige in the territory over which it is dis- 
tributed. There are several rivers having this identical form of 
the root, and we readily perceive it in such names as Dore, Lo- 
dore, Dover, Dura, and Duir. This form also leads to Thur and 
Adur. Derwent {dur gwyn), the clear stream, is likewise a deriv- 
ative. Derwent became Darent, and the latter was shortened to 
Trent, and to Dart. In this form we may recognize it in Dart- 
mouth ; and in still another form, as Trowbridge. In France we 
find the same root in the name kdour and Dordogne ; in the 
Iberian peninsula it appears as Douro and Duero. 

Don is also a very common root signifying flowing water. 
There is a river bearing this form of the name in England, and 
another in Russia. It has been immortalized in the song, — 

' Ye banks and braes o' Bonnie DoonJ 

and we find it also in the various forms of ' Dun,' ' Dean,' and 
' Devon.' It occurs in Danube, and possibly in the tautological 
Dordogne. In the north of England it is the ' Tyne ' ; and in the 
south the ' Teign.' 

Another root signifying running water is found in such names 
as Aar, Arve, Aare, Au, etc. These names never belonged 
to the language of the Kelts, and it seems highly probable that 
they carried them to the British Isles, for we find it in Tamar, 
which, like Thames, means broad water. As a matter of fact we 
can trace the wide path traversed by the Kelts as they pushed 
their way westward. Their track lay just within the French 
coast, and their names are scattered from Draguignan through 
Nimes to Beziers — from Marseilles all along the Gulf of the Lion, 
leaving a narrow strip bordering the immediate shores, distin- 
guished by a fringe of Latin names. Now it is hardly reasonable 
to imagine that the Kelts avoided the immediate coast, nor is it 
any more reasonable to suppose that Latin names should have 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 133 

supplanted those of Keltic origin here and nowhere else. An 
explanation suggested by Professor Geike offers a much more 
probable solution, and a study of the physical geography of the 
region will help demonstrate the problem. All along this lowland 
coast, the rivers bring down yearly an enormous quantity of silt. 
Next to the Po, the Rhone probably extends its delta seaward 
more rapidly than any other river of Europe. Within historic 
times the Po has silted up the northern part of the Adriatic Sea to 
no inconsiderable extent. The town of Adria, a seaport in the 
time of Julius Caesar, is now twenty miles inland, and Pisa, also a 
former seaport, is now seven miles inland. In fact, the Durance, 
which once flowed directly into the sea, now pours its flood into 
the Rhone just in the same manner as the Red River has been 
absorbed by the Mississippi. These facts point out what is proba- 
bly the true explanation. Since the westward march of the Kelts, 
the shores of Southern France have encroached on the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, and the narrow strip of alluvial coast thus formed has 
been built upon by descendants of the Latin race. Written history 
furnishes little or no evidence upon the question ; the names, 
however, stand as mute but living witnesses. 

Among words carried to Britanny is one that is identical with our 
word ' lake.' In the Latin form it is lacus, but among the Gaels 
and Kelts it has the forms ' lough ' and ' loch.' In some instances 
the name was given an estuary, or possibly a lagoon, but in the 
majority of cases the ' lough ' is a lake. Inasmuch as we find 
the name in Switzerland and Germany, we may conclude that it is 
another witness to the Roman invasion, following the Roman 
legions just as Mille ' Lacs ' (thousand lakes) and Fond du ' Lac ' 
(end of the lake) followed the Jesuit missionaries to our own land. 

Our Teutonic stock of people were not men of great learning, 
and any body of water extending beyond their horizon was to 
them the sea. We therefore have a score or more of insignificant 
estuaries and partly enclosed lagoons with this presumptuous title. 
Even the Zuider (south) Zee has been thus dignified. The Danes 
designated the sandy spit which yV//ted into the shallow waters of 



134 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

the North Sea, y^/land ; while the large island near by they called 
the Zeeland. Possibly for a similar reason the large islands south- 
west of Australia were called New Zealand.. It remained for the 
Latin language to give us a name for the grand divisions of water 
which we call ' oceans,' and then, as a half apology for the narrow 
vision of our ancestors, we have rechristened the whole expanse of 
water as the sea. The mythical land ' Atlantis ' has given a name 
to one ocean; 'Arcturos,' the North Wind, another; while its 
gently tossing billows and mild behavior have heralded the broad- 
est ocean as the ' Pacific ' or ' peace-maker.' 

The Latin strictus, choked, has indirectly yielded our word 
' strait,' though it comes to us through the old French estreit. It is 
not common in the neighborhood of the British Islands, the French 
' channel ' (from eanula, a little tube) being generally employed. 
Formerly the word minch was much used, and we still find it 
applied to the channel which separates the Hebrides from Scot- 
land. This word, which is probably the same as the French 
manche (now a ' sleeve '), means a ' gut,' and we find the latter in 
common use. The ' Gut ' is the Strait of Gibraltar. We find it 
also in the Gut of Canso, in Kattegat, and in HeWgate. The last 
named had originally the form ' Horllgat,' that is, the whirling 
strait, but people make short work of words, and so Horllgat 
became Hellgate. All along the Danish coast we find the term 
belt ; even the sea is called the Baltic, and a moment's reflection 
will tell us why it is called so. The sound is also a word we have 
used for many hundred years. It is now any broad strait or chan- 
nel ; but it was formerly a place where ships could ' swim ' (sundari) 
at anchorage. 1 Nowadays we use the word to designate any broad 
and shallow channel, such as Lqng Island Sound. It would not 
be improper to apply it to the North Sea, but it is hardly correct 
to apply it to the land-locked shoals off the Carolina coast, for 
Albemarle and Pamplico Sounds are not sounds, but lagoons. 

Our American words are quite as rich in historical reminiscences 

1 It is also thought to have received its name from the fact that its bottom 
could be reached with the sounding line. 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 135 

as those of the old world ; but unfortunately, in our greed for the 
more material things of life, we have lost sight of the treasures of 
history we might have possessed. We have a few relics of the 
Mound Builders whom the people we call ' Indians ' drove out of 
the land many centuries since. They left no written language 
beyond a few picture inscriptions on the rocks, and if we wish to 
learn anything of their spoken language we must look for it in the 
jargons of the Indians who conquered them. It is scarcely more 
than three hundred years since the conquest of the Aztecs by the 
Spanish adventurer Cortez ; and yet there is scarcely a vestige 
remaining from which we may study their history. And if so little 
can be told from these, how shall we set to work to learn the 
history of the people whose dismantled walls of burned brick are 
now fifty feet below the surface of the Mississippi Valley. Truly 
the students of American geography and history have wonderfully 
rich fields of research before them. 

The geographical names in North America with which we are 
most familiar are mainly derived as follows : — 

Aboriginal names. 
Names introduced by the English. 
Names introduced by the French. 
Names introduced by the Spanish. 
Accidental and incidental names. 

In addition to these there are a few names of Dutch derivation, 
a number of Scriptural names, and a few waifs that have been 
picked up from other parts of the world. 

The aboriginal names are perhaps more abundant than any 
other one class, and we find them scattered almost uniformly over 
the continent. Perhaps they are of remote Turanic origin : cer- 
tainly those of the northwest are, for they betray in many ways 
their Mongol descent Many of them retain their former sound ; 
but we must recollect that not only the aboriginal inhabitant had 
no written language, but he used many sounds that have no equiv- 
alent in English, French, Spanish, or German. It is well to think 



136 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

of this when we wrangle over the spelling of such names as Alle- 
ghany, Aliaska, Kadiak, Mackinac, Sheboygan, and the like. Some 
of the aboriginal names in their present form have a most familiar 
French, or perhaps a Spanish flavor about them. There is a reason 
why they should ■ for in some future century the archaeologist will 
reconstruct a history of the prehistoric races, and mark out the 
path of the Spanish conquest or the line of the French settlement 
with as much vividness as though he had been a participant. He 
will demonstrate how the Indian jargons were modified by the 
Spanish, and how in a succeeding period the Hispanio-Indian 
dialect was again changed by attrition with the Anglo-Saxon 
people. As an instance, among the Indians of Oregon ' water ' 
was designated by a word sounding like walla — a word which 
has been preserved in the names Walla Walla and Wallula. There 
is a beautiful river of which has long been sung in most delightful 
poesy — 

" Onward ever, lovely river, 

Softly falling to the sea. 
Time that scars us, maims and mars us, 

Leaves no track or trench on thee." 

This river as nearly as can be reproduced in English sounds was 
called the Wallamet. Under the influence of the French traders 
it became Ouilamette. Then the Anglo-American farmer came, 
and quickly shortened it to Willamette} and now there is a grow- 
ing custom of cutting the word down to Wilamet. The name of 
a town in Texas has a similar history. A party of vaqueros camped 
in a beautiful spot, and, with the poetic spirit which fires even the 
cowboy's heart, named the place Buenos. On the heels of the 
vaquero came the imperturbable Yankee trader. He could not 
see why a name should be written with one set of letters and 
sounded by another. As a sickening result, the town is now plain 
Wano. A somewhat similar change occurred in a certain Cali- 

1 A similar fate befell ' Ouachita,' which now usually appears in the form of 
Washita and Wichita. The change is the result of the same law whereby 
' guard ' has become ward and ' guarantee ' warranty. 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 137 

fornia mining camp which boasted the not unmusical name San 
Juan. But San Juans are very numerous on the Pacific Coast, and 
inasmuch as the combined trader and postmaster had no end of 
trouble with the confusion of names, once, in a fit of righteous 
indignation, he changed the name to Johnstown, and so it re- 
mained until it fared the fate of all worn-out diggings. 

But the Spanish conquest has left us many entertaining souve- 
nirs. The notched, saw-toothed crests gave us the word ' sierra ' 
(saw), which is so aptly applied to the ranges of the western high- 
lands. Brackish, salty waters have given the name ' Salinas ' to 
a dozen streams. The snowy crests of the mountains suggest the 
name ' Nevada.' Their sharp, needleAike spires prompted the 
name of ' Farallones ' to the islands near the Golden Gate. Tur- 
bid waters richly colored with red sediment gave the ' Colorado ' its 
name. The wolf is remembered in Point ' Lobos,' the butterfly in 
'Mariposa,' the angelic hosts in Los 'Angeles,' the clumps of 
willows in * Saucelito,' the wild cherries in ' Cerritos,' and the 
forest of white oaks in ' Albuquerque.' The apostles and canons 
of the Church have been numerously represented in hundreds of 
such names as San Juan (St. John), San Jose (St. Joseph), San 
Diego (St. James), San Pablo (St. Paul), and a host of lesser 
saints. Cape Gracias a Dios was probably suggested by the same 
feeling of reverence that prompted Captain Hall to name the haven 
in which he found safety ' Thank God Harbor.' The pleasant 
prospect or surroundings have caused the name ' chico ' and 
' bonita ' to be applied to a score of places. One peculiar feature 
marked the conduct of the Spanish explorer : he rarely ever com- 
memorated the living — much less himself- — in the names applied 
to places. He was not, however, unmindful of the beautiful in 
nature, as the names 'Blanea Reina' (white queen), 'Colorado 
Chiquita,' ' Pasadena ' (a corruption of a word meaning key to 
paradise}, testify. With the scarcity of verdure that character- 
izes the Basin Region it is not singular that so many delightful 
nooks dotted with groves of mezquit should be named ' Palo 
Verde.' In gratitude at the discovery of the potent Micro meria 



138 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

douglasii, an herb which cured his ague, banished his rheumatism, 
and invigorated his whole system, he named the island where it 
was found ' Yerba Buena.' 

But these were only diversions, for his whole energy was devoted 
to finding enough canonized saints whose names might be distrib- 
uted over the country ; and if there were not enough of these, he 
could, as a last resort, propitiate his Satanic majesty in such names 
as Monte ' Diablo.' 

We of course expect to find French names scattered over the 
north and northwest, just as we found the Spanish names in the west 
and southwest. The wide swath of French names extends along 
the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes, and then the stream follows 
the Mississippi almost as regularly as the flow of the river itself, 
terminating in Louisiana in a broad delta, and flanking both sides 
of the river almost like the drift that has been tossed along the 
banks by the flood. They follow along Rene Lake, which the 
modern trapper has turned into ' Rainy ' Lake. In the rapids of 
the St. Lawrence which we familiarly know as ' La Chine,' we find 
testimony of the early explorer's belief that the St. Lawrence 
poured its flood as far east as China. In ' Prairie du Chien ' 
we may learn that the prairie dogs were abundant as far east as 
the Mississippi. ' La Crosse ' still perpetuates the place where 
the Indians met to play their famous game, and ' Detroit,' the 
place where the three rivers had a common basin. 1 ' Eau Claire ' 
testifies to the pure transparency of the water, but in Trempelau 
we are left to guess whether an unfortunate individual was steeped 
in just plain eau or in eau de vie. 'Baton Rouge,' the red staff, 
was, without doubt, suggested by the bright red bark of the tall, 
slim cedars that grew near the Mish a se oa, or, as we now say, 
the 'Mississippi.' The 'ouragan' which blew so fiercely from the 
snow-clad Wind River Mountains, is recalled in the Oregon — 
the river now named Columbia. 

The French explorer was as frugal with the names of his saints 
as his Spanish contemporary was profligate. In only a few in- 

1 It may be derived from cfetroit, the strait. 



HISTORY IN GEOGRAPHY 139 

stances, such as St. Louis, St. Joseph, St. Claire, and Ste. Marie, 
are they remembered. He was also as modest about commemo- 
rating the names of his living brethren as the Spaniard, and it 
remained for the Anglo-Saxon descendant to give the names De 
Soto, Marquette, Hennepin, La Salle, and Joliet, the prominence 
they deserve. 

But not so with the enterprising Anglo-American. He has 
plastered his name over the continent with a freshness that would 
do credit to the proprietor of a cure-all bitters, and we find the 
whole country bristling with Smithnelds, Jonesburgs, Brownsvilles, 
and Thomastons. When all the resources of his own family name 
were exhausted, he began with the names of lesser lights, — usually 
those of former presidents, — and a state that has not a duplicate 
set of these is indeed poverty stricken. Then he finally fell back 
to natural resources, and we find Willow Creeks, Currant Creeks, 
Oak Creeks, Cherry Creeks, Cedar Creeks, Cottonwood Creeks, 
Rock Creeks, Clear Creeks, and Beach Creeks by the hundreds. 
Moreover, every one of these has a North Fork and a South Fork, 
or else an East Fork and a West Fork. If Mineral City in the 
abstract is not sufficiently comprehensive, Gold Hill, Silver City, 
Iron Mountain, Leadville, Placerville, Oroville, Soda Springs, Cop- 
peropolis, and Carbondale are called into requisition. When all 
others were exhausted the ' Half Way House ' was a never-ending 
resource to be drawn from. It was equally serviceable at all 
times, and under every condition of civilization. It could be any- 
thing from a marble palace to an Indian wick-i-up, and it could 
be situated anywhere from one-third to four-fifths of the distance 
between places. This name was indeed an El Dorado. 

The gay and festive vaquero has likewise had no small share in the 
geographical distribution of names. His selections are certainly 
not classical, — which is in their favor, — and they may not be 
overwhelming in their degree of refinement. The severest critic, 
however, cannot complain that they are lacking in vigor of expres- 
sion. As witnesses there are ' Boot-jack Ranch,' ' Jackass Flat,' 
'Dirty Devil River,' ' Dead Mule Gulch,' ' Devil's Kitchen/ ' Shoo 



140 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

Fly," Shanty- town/ 'Slab-town," Hang- town,' 'You Bet,' 'Whiskey 
Flat," Poker Flat," Hell's Delight,' and 'Hell Roaring Forks,' — all 
of which are names that are, or have been, in legitimate use. Yuba 
Dam offers an apparent apology in its orthography, though it is un- 
fortunate for the apology that the name existed long before a dam 
was built across Yuba River. But the vaquero, the prospector, and 
the muleteer are transitory, and so are often the names they have 
bestowed. Nevertheless, these names, undesirable as they may 
seem, are just as important in history as though they had been the 
choicest terms culled from classical literature. The cowboy was 
a more potent factor in the geography of the West than the mer- 
chant or the school teacher; for, in spite of his short-comings, 
which were not few, he was a man of courage, of determination, 
and of wonderful breadth of character. He was the pioneer ex- 
plorer, in whose footsteps the professional explorer followed. In 
many respects he was unconsciously a greater geographer than 
any of his more learned followers, who depended upon him as 
guide and ward. He was the advance-guard of civilization, the 
necessary man for the times ; and when the times were changed, 
he disappeared. 

It is a fortunate thing, too, that a disposition to restore the old 
Indian names is growing little by little. And why should it not 
be? Where can we find names that have a clearer and more 
musical ring than Wallu'la, Parowan', Uin'tah, To'roweap, U in' 
karet, Pah u'tah, Kla ha'lem, I'vanpah, Tu il'la, Un com pah' gre, 
Kai par'owits, Awa'pa, Cu ca mon'go, Ton a wan' da, and a host of 
others equally crisp ? One could not easily find better ones, and 
in them the archaeologist will find quite as rich a treasure as the 
storehouses of English names have yielded. 



POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES 141 



XL 
POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES. 

It is rarely that one questions the accuracy of boundary lines. 
This arises partly from the reason that the boundary line has little 
of practical significance to either teacher or pupil, but mainly 
because we are apt to look at boundary lines as things that have 
been established beyond doubt. As a matter of fact there are 
very few boundary lines in existence that are so definitely settled 
as to leave no room for misunderstanding. In many instances 
state maps have been compiled by aggregating the surveys of pri- 
vate properties into towns and counties. From the latter the map 
of the state is put together. Such maps, though consistent in 
themselves, unfortunately do not join together with any degree of 
accuracy. For instance, when the official maps of Illinois, Mis- 
souri, and Iowa, reduced to a uniform scale, are joined, the 
Mississippi River widens out to a broad lake in some places and 
disappears between overlapping borders in others. 

Boundary lines are mainly of three kinds, — the crests of moun- 
tain-ranges, rivers, and surveyed lines marked by posts or cairns. 
In the case of a mountain-range there is not likely to be much 
trouble resulting from indefiniteness of position, from the fact that 
the range is often wide and is more or less impassable. Further- 
more, the crest may lie in a barren, uninhabitable region. The 
main difficulty lies in ascertaining whether the range as laid down 
on the map conforms to the actual range ; and secondly, in locat- 
ing the crest of the range. It is by no means easy to do either 
of these. In the latter case, drawing a line along the hachures of 
a map is one thing and locating the crest of a broad swell of land 
is quite another. In the former, it is by no means certain that, 
even on the best maps, the hachured range corresponds with the 



142 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

actual one. The plotting of mountains on the ordinary map is 
largely a matter of guess-work. In evidence of this it is necessary 
only to compare the various maps of the Rocky Mountain region 
with one another. In the specialization of ranges no two maps 
reasonably correspond. The mechanical impossibilities of cor- 
rectly plotting ranges on small maps are such that chartographers 
have too frequently fallen into the habit of delineating the topog- 
raphy more with a view to convenience and artistic effect rather 
than accuracy. A case in point is that of the territory of Alaska. 
The boundary of the southeastern strip, according to the treaty 
with Great Britain, ' followed the summit of the mountains situated 
parallel to the coast.' Explorations have shown, however, that 
there were so many breaks, and such a lack of continuity of 
the various ranges, that the supposed crest has practically no 
existence. 

A river boundary, especially if the river be navigable, is always 
a menace to peaceful relations. This was notably the case when 
the Rhine was a boundary between France and Germany. Human 
nature is the same the world over, and it is only natural that each 
nation should want both sides of the river. Even in the United 
States river boundaries are a never-ceasing source of annoyance. 
Usually, where a river separates two political divisions, the divid- 
ing line, by statutory law, lies in mid-stream. But - inasmuch as 
the stream which flows through alluvial land is constantly changing 
its course, the mid-stream of one year lies in quite a different posi- 
tion from the mid-stream of the following year. In the case of the 
lower Mississippi River the formation of a cut-off across the neck of 
a long loop will frequently leave large tracts of land in such a posi- 
tion that no statutory law will decide the ownership. At the occur- 
rence of Davis's cut-off at Palmyra Bend, Mississippi, a body of 
land about thirty miles in circumference was separated from the 
state to which it rightfully belonged. Island No. 74, between 
Mississippi and Arkansas, is practically out of the United States, 
for by statutory law the boundary of Arkansas extends to mid- 
stream, while that of Mississippi reaches to mid-c/iamte/. Island 



POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES 143 

No. 74 lies between these two points, and is, consequently, without 
the borders of either state. 

The variation of the compass needle has caused many irregu- 
larities in boundaries where the latter were established by compass 
surveys. So faulty have these been, that much bloodshed has 
resulted from the inaccuracies of such surveys. The line com- 
monly known as Mason and Dixon's line was surveyed by two 
English astronomers (after whom it was named), in order to settle 
the bloody disputes which arose from an imperfectly surveyed 
boundary between Pennsylvania 1 and Maryland. A casual in- 
spection of any large map of the New England States will show 
that in scarcely a single place does a state boundary coincide with 
a parallel or a meridian. The wavy northern boundary of Vermont 
is undoubtedly due to imperfectly adjusted compass boxes, and the 
breaks in the southern boundary of Massachusetts are due to 
alleged errors in the former surveys. Indeed, the errors of survey 
have always been a remarkable feature in the boundaries of the 
state. During the recent topographical survey of the state these 
' errors ' received a searching investigation with the result that the 
error was always in favor of Massachusetts. The small triangle of 
land clipped from the southwest corner of the state, known as 
Boston Corners, was ceded to New York, in order that the officers 
of that state might put a stop to the liquor traffic in the locality. 
The rectangle projecting from the southwest corner of Connecti- 
cut is the result of a compromise between that state and New York. 
Connecticut desired a more extended coast along the Sound, and, 
in return for the rectangle mentioned, ceded to New York a strip 
of equal width to be cut from the western edge of the state. 

The Missouri l Jog.' — The offset in the southeastern part of 
Missouri, consisting of the counties of Pemiscot, Dunklin, and 
New Madrid, furnishes some interesting history. 2 ' At the time of 

1 The boundary between Pennsylvania and New York is theoretically the 
42d parallel; practically, however, it is a crooked line varying from 760 feet 
north to 350 feet south of this parallel. 

2 The history of this 'jog' was furnished through the courtesy of Hon. A. 



144 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

the admission of Missouri, Colonel John Walker owned an extensive 
plantation in Pemiscot County. Walker was a man of more than 
ordinary ability, and was generally looked on as a leader by the 
people of that region. All this country was then recognized as a 
part of Missouri Territory. New Madrid was an important trading 
post, and an immense traffic was carried on between the French 
and Spanish traders and the various tribes of Indians in Southern 
Missouri and Western Tennessee. New Madrid claimed and exer- 
cised jurisdiction as far south as Pemiscot Bayou, which flows into 
the Mississippi River about three miles north of the present line, 
between Missouri and Arkansas. Walker acknowledged allegiance 
to the territory of Missouri, inasmuch as the laws were adminis- 
tered by the authorities at New Madrid. 

' When Missouri applied for admission into the Union, the paral- 
lel of $6° 30' was suggested as the southern boundary of the new 
state. Walker at once saw that if this line were adopted, he would 
be left in an unorganized territory, inasmuch as the line crossed 
the Mississippi about twenty-five miles north of his possessions. 
His worldly means as well as his indomitable pluck gave him in- 
fluence, and he set out to work in earnest to prevent the threaten- 
ing disaster. He interviewed the commissioners appointed to fix 
the boundary, and so eloquently did he plead his cause, that the 
commissioners finally agreed to take the area north of the 36 th 
parallel, and between the Mississippi and St. Francais rivers into 
the state.' 

The Minnesota 'Jog.' — There are few students of geography 
who have failed to notice the peculiar affect upon the northern 
part of Minnesota. It is the only place where the boundary of the 
United States, the Alaskan possessions excepted, reaches farther 

A. Lesueur, Secretary of State of Missouri. At the time the author's request for 
the information was received, nothing concerning it was on file in the archives 
of the state. Mr. Lesueur immediately began an investigation of the matter. 
The facts were finally obtained and presented by Senator George W. Carleton, 
after an extended research. All the parties concerned in the history of the 
offset are dead, and the information was passing into the traditional -state. 



POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES 145 

north than the 49th parallel. This irregular knob is another 
instance of the difficulties arising from an unskilful determination 
of latitude. The limits of the United States were first laid down 
in the provisional treaty of 1782. In the second article that part 
of the northern boundary line involved is specified as follows : — 

. . . ' thence through Lake Superior northward of the Isles 
Royal and Philippeaux to the Long Lake ; thence through the 
middle of said Long Lake and the water communication between 
it and the Lake of the Woods to the said Lake of the Woods ; 
thence through the said Lake of the Woods to the northwestern 
point thereof, and from thence on a due west course to the Missis- 
sippi River.' . . . 

From this it will be seen that although the existence of the Lake 
of the Woods was definitely known, the commissioners' knowledge 
of the head waters of the Mississippi River was certainly at fault 
for want of an accurate map. This fact they recognized, and in 
1794 it was ordered that ' the two parties will proceed by amicable 
negotiation to regulate the boundary line in that quarter.' The 
'amicable negotiations' were not resumed, however, until 18 18. 
The treaty made at this time stipulated as follows : — 

' It is agreed that a line drawn from the most northwestern point 
of the Lake of the Woods along the 49th parallel of north latitude, 
or if the said point shall not be in the 49th parallel of north lati- 
tude, then a line drawn due north or south as the case may be, 
until the said line shall intersect the said parallel of north latitude, 
and from the point of such intersection due west ... to the Stony 
(Rocky) Mountains.' 

But subsequent surveys showed that the northwestern point of 
Lake of the Woods was not on the 49th parallel, but twenty-six 
miles north of it. So when the survey was pontinued westward, it 
was begun at a point twenty-six miles south of the northwestern 
point of the lake. An inspection of the map of Minnesota in 
nearly all of the geographies will show that this offset does not 
apparently reach to the extreme northwestern point of Lake of the 
Woods. The maps, however, are not in the wrong. The extreme 



146 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

northwestern part of the area of water generally charted and in- 
cluded under the name of Lake of the Woods is called Lake of 
Shoals — hence the apparent discrepancy. 

No Man's Land. — So much has been said about the strip of 
public land known variously as the ' Neutral Strip ' or ' No Man's 
Land,' that it becomes a matter of interest to learn how this body 
of land, one-fifth larger than the state of Connecticut, is without 
law, government, or any restraint except that which public opinion 
upholds. Practically this area is as much beyond the jurisdiction 
of statutory law of the United States as though it were a part of 
Central Africa. Let us see how this condition of affairs came about. 

Formerly No Man's Land was a part of Mexico ; but when the 
Texans threw off the Mexican yoke and established the Republic 
of Texas, this strip was a part of the new republic ; it was never, 
however, a part of the state of Texas. The Indian Territory was 
formed in 1835-37, and its western limit was then the western 
limit of the United States, but it should be remembered that the 
western boundary of the United States was the 100th meridian ; 
beyond that meridian the territory belonged to Mexico, and it so 
remained as Mexican territory until the close of the Mexican war. 
When the Indian Territory was formed, it provided that the ' out- 
let of the Cherokee nation should be a free and unmolested ground 
reaching to the western boundary of the United States ' ; but as the 
territory of the United States extended only to the 100th meridian, 
the boundary of the Cherokee nation could not extend beyond it. 
This fixed the western boundary of the Indian Territory, and the 
eastern boundary of No Man's Land. 

With the admission of Texas to the United States, there was a 
certain difficulty to avoid. The line north of which slavery was 
not permitted to exist Was the parallel of 36 30', while the northern 
boundary of Texas extended to the 37th parallel. Rather than to 
lose the privilege of slave-holding, the Texans voluntarily ceded 
to the United States all land north of 3 6° 30'. This fixed the 
southern boundary of No Man's Land. 

But at this time all the territory north and west of Texas was 



POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES 147 

unorganized, and embraced a very wide area. When, in 1854, 
the Kansas and Nebraska bill came up before the United States 
Senate, it was proposed to make the parallel of 36 30' the southern 
boundary of Kansas, but Senator Stephen A. Douglas, under the 
supposition that the 100th meridian was not the treaty limit of 
the Indian Territory, secured an amendment to the bill, making 
the parallel of 37 the southern limit of Kansas, in order not to 
deprive the Cherokees of land which it was supposed belonged to 
them. So a part of the northern boundary of No Man's Land 
was fixed; and when Colorado Territory l was formed, its southern 
limit of 37 fixed the rest of the boundary. Following closely 
upon this, the territory of New Mexico was organized, and its 
eastern limit of the 103d meridian fixed the western boundary of 
the Neutral Strip. 

And thus a large tract of land has been left entirely without the 
pale of the law, for the jurisdiction of each United States court is 
limited by political boundaries, and no court can take cognizance 
of crime beyond its jurisdiction. Therefore No Man's Land with 
its population of 10,000 people is wholly without protection of 
life and property except that which is offered by the revolver and 
the Winchester rifle. 

The ' No Man's Land ' of Texas. — On account of an error 
in the treaty surveys there is a tract of land, about 2400 square 
miles in area, or half the size of Connecticut, lying between Texas 
and Indian Territory, the ownership of which cannot be deter- 
mined without special Congressional legislation. This area lies 
against the eastern part of the ' pan-handle ' of Texas, between 
the North and the South, or Prairie Dog-town Fork of Red River. 
Politically it is known as Greer County, and, although not recog- 
nized by the United States authorities, it is claimed and included 
by the state authorities of Texas as a legitimate part of that state, 
and the inhabitants enjoy the same political rights as those of any 
recognized part of the state. 

1 When Kansas was first organized, the territorial limits extended westward 
to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 



148 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

Indian Territory is a part of that tract of land purchased from 
France, known as the Louisiana purchase, and it is safe to say that 
neither Uncle Sam nor the kin? of Spain possessed any accurate 
knowledge of the topography and drainage of the country. The 
treaty of 1 8 19 stipulated that — 

' The boundary line between the two countries west of the Mis- 
sissippi River shall begin on the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of 
Sabine River in the sea, continuing north along the western bank 
of that river to the thirty-second degree of latitude, thence by a 
line due north to the latitude where it strikes the Rio Roxo of 
Natchitoches, or Red River, then following the course of the Rio 
Roxo westward to the degree of longitude one hundred west from 
London (Greenwich) and twenty-three from Washington, and 
then crossing said Red River and running . . . north to Arkansas 
River. . . . The whole as laid down in Melish's map of the 
United States, published at Philadelphia, improved to January 
1, 1818.' 

Now Melish's map not only locates the 100th meridian about 
eighty-two miles too far to the eastward, but it also places Red 
River too far south by about fifty miles. The latter error has not 
as yet resulted in controversy, but the former has caused no end of 
trouble. When the 100th meridian was finally located in its proper 
place, it left matters in a state of delightful uncertainty. About 
fifty miles to the eastward Red River forks, one of the tributaries 
coming from the northwest, the other from a point almost due 
west. Which of these forks is the main stream, it is impossible 
to decide. South, or Prairie Dog-town Fork has the wider flood- 
plain ; North Fork is more permanent, and contains a larger volume 
of water. Melish's map shows that the treaty could not have con- 
templated either fork, and this is about the only thing that his 
map does show with certainty. lie innocently admits that he 
had neither seen nor surveyed the region in question, saying that 
the country west of the Mississippi River had been delineated from 
Pike's explorations. As a matter of fact, however, Pike never 
visited the region in dispute. 



POLITICAL AND OTHER BOUNDARIES 149 

Certain it is the existence of North Fork was known before 
Melish's map was compiled, and this is considered a strong argu- 
ment in favor of the claim of Texas. An examination of the terms 
of the treaty, however, shows that this is not a factor in the dis- 
pute, as the treaty was based, not upon the actual facts of the case, 
but upon Melish's map. Inasmuch as this map ignored the exist- 
ence of either fork of the river, the question of the boundary can be 
settled only by an agreement between the United States and Texas. 

The Boundaries of Kansas Nebraska, and Dakota. — Prob- 
ably the majority of students who have consulted recent maps of 
Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota have noticed that the western 
boundaries of these divisions extend a little beyond the i02d and 
104th meridians respectively. On small section maps the differ- 
ence is so slight that the overlapping can be shown only by con- 
siderable exaggeration, but on state maps it is very noticeable. 
The discrepancy came about by carelessness in the act whereby 
these divisions were organized. Under this act the boundaries 
were set, not on the io2d and 104th meridians, but 25 and 27 
respectively, west of Washington, probably on the erroneous sup- 
position that this meridian was exactly 77 west of Greenwich. As 
a matter of fact, the meridian of Washington is 77 3'+ west of the 
prime meridian, and it became necessary therefore to relocate these 
boundaries about two and a half miles west of their former location. 

The Boundaries of Europe. — It is a somewhat grim satire 
on our text-books that an important change in boundary should 
not be noted for many years after its establishment; but such has 
been the case concerning the political boundaries of Europe. 
The Ural Mountains and Ural River are not the boundaries which 
separate Europe and Asia, except along a very small part of the 
line. In about latitude 62 the boundary makes a wide detour 
east of the summit of the Ural Mountains, and in about latitude 
5 2 it passes to the westward of the Ural River. The Caucasus 
Mountains are not the southern boundary : on the contrary, the 
latter is for the greater part an arbitrary line about two hundred 
miles south of this range. The frequent changes in the boundaries 



150 MODERN FACTS AND ANCIENT FANCIES 

between these grand divisions at least show the inconsistency of 
attempting to make any physical distinction between the areas 
usually called Europe and Asia. Why not, therefore, consider the 
whole Russian Empire as a unit instead of separating it into Russia 
in Europe and Russia in Asia? 

Terminal Capes. — It is quite frequently the custom to drill 
classes in the terminal capes or points of the various grand divis- 
ions. Whether or not time spent in this kind of work is profit- 
able, is hardly a subject for discussion in these pages ; but it goes 
without saying that, if done at all, it should be correctly done. 
In not a few instances these are incorrectly taught. In at least 
one handbook it is boldly asserted in the text that Cape Mendo- 
cino is the western cape of the United States (exclusive of Alaska) . 
A casual glance at a map of the Pacific coast of the United States 
will readily show that Cape Flattery is considerably west of Cape 
Mendocino in longitude. The error in this instance arises from 
a careless habit of estimating longitude from the margin of the 
map instead of by meridian distance. The eastern point of the 
United States is Quoddy Head, Maine. The 49th parallel does 
noc mark the extreme northern part of the United States, inas- 
much as a part of Minnesota extends twenty-six miles north of 
this parallel. The southern extremity is practically the coral reef 
on which the city of Key West is built The southern cape on 
the mainland of Europe is not Cape Matapan, but Cape Tarifa. 
Even as eminent an authority as the Encyclopaedia Britannica is in 
error here. The southern cape of Asia is not Cape Roumania, 
but Cape Buru. The western cape of South America is Point 
Parina, and not Cape Blanco. Cape St. Roque is not the eastern 
cape of South America. This distinction belongs to Cape Augus- 
tinho, which is rarely shown except on pilot charts. As a matter 
of fact, this cape is mentioned as a prominent headland in the 
narrative of Robinson Crusoe. Cape St. Roque, however, is im- 
portant as marking the bend in the coast from southeast to south- 
west. Cape Blanco and not Cape Bon is the northern cape of Africa. 
C-ipe Agulhas and not Cape of Good Hope is the southern cape. 



APPENDIX. 



Measuring Ocean Currents. 1 — The Gulf Stream and the 
currents of the ocean generally were and still are a bone of con- 
tention among navigators and scientific men. It had been the 
practice to study deep currents by attaching a sinking body to a 
float by the desired length of line, and committing the whole to 
the sea. What was taking place below was inferred from what 
could be seen to be taking place at the surface. Methods so un- 
certain could produce but uncertain results. 

It seemed to Lieutenant Pillsbury that there was but one way 
to grapple with this problem, and that was to anchor the investi- 
gating vessel, and from it to send down to the required depth 
some machine which would automatically record exactly what was 
taking place there. Now to anchor in 50 or 60 fathoms of water 
was at that time rather unusual, but to anchor in 1000 or 1500 
fathoms, as his plan contemplated, was altogether unheard of. 
It was a bold project • but he thought over the apparatus which 
would be required, and, convinced that it ought to work, went at 
it. An old deep-sea dredging apparatus furnished most of the 
material, and this he modified, rearranged, and added to, to con- 
trol his cable. At the same time he invented and constructed a 
current metre which not only accurately and automatically records 
the velocity of any current in which it may be placed, but its 
direction as well. This ingenious instrument may be thus briefly 
described. A rudder or vane forces the four little cones to face 
the current ; they revolve, and a counting-machine registers the 
number of revolutions. A compass, attached just above the 

1 From a paper by Henry Wells, used with the permission of Harper & 
Bros. 



152 APPENDIX 

sinker, acts as compasses do, and of course the rudder or vane 
makes the same angle with its needle that the current makes. 
The first movement to hoist the machine locks the compass and 
the van or rudder. This fixes the direction of the current. When 
on deck, the register is read, the proper allowance for motion in 
ascending and descending to the given depth is deducted, and 
then by reference to a table deduced from experiment the velocity 
of the current is accurately determined. 

The anchor used is what is known as a - Cape Ann fisherman's 
anchor,' of about five hundred pounds weight. The cable is of 
hard steel wire rope of the very best quality. It is 3700 fathoms 
long, and half an inch and less in diameter. The entire cable is 
reeled in and paid out from a large reel between decks, but the 
work of hoisting up the anchor and controlling its descent is done 
by a powerful hoisting engine on deck. 

Anchoring in the sea itself, where the water is in a condition of 
almost chronic turmoil, must require peculiar appliances to arrange 
for the pitching of the vessel, especially in so small a one as the 
Blake. To run the cable out of a hawser hole in the bow, as is 
the usual practice, would not answer at all. Lieutenant Pillsbury 
arranged it thus : he projected a very strong boom from the bow, 
carrying an iron pulley two feet in diameter, over which the cable 
passed on its way into the sea. The outboard end of this boom 
was topped up at an angle of about 35 by a strong rope called a 
* topping-lift,' which led to the foremast head. The pitching of 
so small a vessel in a seaway is tremendous. The vessel must rise 
to each sea, and each rise must bring a sudden and heavy strain 
upon the cable. To meet this contingency, Lieutenant Pillsbury 
interposed between the \ topping-lift ' and the foremast-head 
thirteen feet of rubber disks strung on a steel rod. All the strain 
on the topping-lift was transmitted to the steel rod. The whole 
device, called the ' accumulator,' was so arranged that upon a 
sudden increase of strain the rubbers were compressed, thus 
lengthening the topping-lift, and permitting the end of the boom 
which sustains the cable to bow down. When the strain ceases, 






MEASURING OCEAN CURRENTS 153 

the elasticity of the rubbers elevates the outer end of the boom to 
its original angle. In practice the ' accumulator ' is allowed to 
be compressed 4^- feet, when a second topping-lift takes up the 
strain. 

In anchoring in 'shallow water,' as Lieutenant Pillsbury calls 
500 or 600 fathoms, the anchor is let go, and cable is fed to it at 
the rate of about 50 fathoms, cr 300 feet, a minute. But in greater 
depths, if unknown, a sounding is first made. The anchor is then 
lowered away, at the rate indicated above, till near the bottom. 
Then it is let down the rest of the way more slowly, for fear the 
cable may foul the anchor. Though the wooden stock of the 
anchor is driven in as tight as possible, it comes up quite loose, 
and with every difference in the hardness of its surface marked by 
the tremendous pressure to which it has been subjected. 

After the anchor has taken the bottom, preparations are made to 
lower the current metre. The following description will make clear 
the method followed. The anchor having grappled bottom, the 
fast end of the cable toward the vessel is almost perpendicular for 
a long distance below the surface. Advantage is very ingeniously 
taken of this to retain the current metre in a fixed position in rela- 
tion to the current. A wire called a 'jack-stay ' is fastened to the 
anchor cable, and after that both are paid out together. Seven or 
eight hundred fathoms of cable in excess of the depth is all the 
'scope' ever given. To keep the 'jack-stay' straight up and 
down, 300 pounds of iron are attached to its lower end. Also the 
jack-stay is connected to the anchor cable by an intervening piece 
of rope, proportioned to the strength of current and depth of water, 
so that the jack-stay may be perpendicular. Upon this jack-stay 
the current metre, provided with its own hoisting wire and 75 
pounds of sinker, is sent down and hauled up as often as may 
be desirable. 

Lieutenant Pillsbury tried his invention for the first time in 
March, 1885. But few changes have been found necessary in the 
apparatus. He has remained three days at anchor in 1000 
fathoms, v— 6000 feet, — and from morning till night at anchor 



154 APPENDIX 

in 1852 fathoms, or 11,112 feet. This last was his deepest 
anchorage. He was forced to get under way by the approach of 
a very heavy squall. At this depth 45 minutes was sufficient to 
anchor the vessel, and 1 hour and 15 minutes was required to 
heave the anchor up. It now remains to set forth the practical 
advantages which have already flowed and which may be expected 
to flow from this work. They are indeed great. Bad weather is 
the time of danger at sea. Aside from stress of wind and wave, 
the mariner cannot then check his position by observation. He 
knows the direction in which he is headed and the rate at which 
he is passing through the water, and from these he computes his 
position. But there is always one uncertain factor, which may 
make or mar him, and for which he cannot allow. It is the cur- 
rent. He may calculate the rate and direction in which he is 
passing through the water correctly enough. But the rate and 
direction in which he is passing over the bottom, and consequently 
approaching the land, may be quite another thing. Probably a 
very large majority of all the wrecks which annually occur on the 
more frequented coasts of the world are due to this cause. Any 
investigation which may tend to help the mariner to this all- 
important information, whether viewed from a humanitarian or 
from a pecuniary standpoint, should receive the warmest encour- 
agement. Lieutenant Pillsbury's work has already accomplished 
much in this direction, though, at the present time, but in its 
infancy, so to speak. 

He anchored his vessel at various places, and at various depths 
up to 1 150 fathoms, on a line between Yucatan and Cuba, and 
sent down his current metre to question the Gulf Stream. He 
continued his observations in various places and at various depths 
up to 1024 fathoms, on a line between Key West and Cuba, and 
again questioned the Gulf Stream with that valuable invention. 
He occupied a third line across its course between the southern 
end of Florida and the Bahama Bank, and there repeated his 
investigations. He found that the current of the Gulf Stream — 
the most important to the welfare of mankind, and the most stud- 



MEASURING OCEAN CURRENTS 155 

ied of the currents of the oceans — was influenced by the posi- 
tion of the moon ; that it increased in velocity up to a certain 
point and then diminished, as rhythmically and frequently as the 
ebb and flow of the tides. And he furnished data which enabled 
the Coast Survey to inform mariners using these frequented and 
dangerous thoroughfares just how they could tell at any hour, 
day or night, at any month of any season, just what' currents they 
might expect to encounter. The one heretofore uncertain ele- 
ment which entered into the calculation of their position otherwise 
than by observation was made certain. Sea-captains, conferring 
together, would not unfrequently find that one had had a tremen- 
dous current for or against him, while another, in the same place 
but at another time, had found but a feeble flow. But this was 
supposed to be a chance effect due to fortuitous causes. That it 
was a regular phenomenon governed by fixed laws was not even 
dreamed of by those most versed in this much-studied stream. 

If a discovery of such scientific interest and great practical 
value has followed almost upon the first application of Lieutenant 
Pillsbury's methods and devices to this work, what may we not 
hope from them in the future ? In the near future the Blake will 
first visit the ■ Horse Latitudes ' — the region between the trade- 
winds and the variable winds of the North Atlantic. This will 
involve several anchorages in 2500 fathoms, or 15,000 feet, of 
water, yet he seems to entertain little doubt of success. He will 
then endeavor to determine whether any current exists outside of 
that due to the trade-winds themselves, and will make a series 
of observations northeastly of Nassau, N.P., with a view of de- 
termining how much the stream which leaves the Gulf of Mexico 
is augmented by the general ocean circulation passing to the north- 
ward of the Bahamas — a problem the solution of which may quite 
probably revolutionize existing views as to the extent and character 
of the Gulf Stream proper, and its influence on the climatology of 
Europe. Then anchorages will be made on the coast of South 
America, just outside of the Windward Islands, to ascertain the 
approximate value of the north branch of the great equatorial cur- 



156 APPENDIX 

rent. Then the passages between the West India Islands will be 
occupied, and the currents which enter the Caribbean Sea from 
the Atlantic will be gauged. This will probably determine the 
amount of water-flow caused by the trade-winds. The practical 
value of a sound knowledge of those currents, from a pecuniary 
and a humanitarian point of view, has already been indicated. 
Aside from this, Lieutenant Pillsbury's work this coming winter 
will certainly throw great light upon, if it does not completely 
solve, questions which have puzzled scientists from the days of 
Columbus to the present time. 

The Source of the Mississippi. — Within a few years there has 
been much agitation as to what particular body of water consti- 
tutes the true source of the Mississippi River. As the matter now 
stands, there are two lakes holding rival claims to this honor. One 
of these, Lake Itaska, until recently has had the undisputed pos- 
session to the title for about fifty years. The other, which appears 
on certain maps, including the United States Land Office publica- 
tions, as Elk Lake, and on certain other maps as Lake Glazier, 
is at present the subject of a bitter dispute. 

In 1 88 1 Captain Willard Glazier visited the head waters of the 
Mississippi, and entered the small lake to the south of Lake Itaska. 
In honor of the expedition, his friends christened the body of 
water Lake Glazier. From this reservoir, Glazier with his party 
journeyed the entire length of the river to South Pass, and there 
seems no doubt that his is the first party that ever did so. At first it 
was claimed that Captain Glazier was the discoverer of the lake, but 
inasmuch as the latter was located and measured by the surveyors 
who compiled the Land Office map of the northern part of Min- 
nesota, two years prior to his visit, the claim of first discovery was 
relinquished by Captain Glazier. Schoolcraft, who explored the 
region in 1834, notes the lake on his map, though he makes no 
mention of it as the source of the Mississippi. Nicollet also 
explored the region in 1843. Nicollet's map does not closely 
resemble Schoolcraft's, nor any of the recent maps. He, however, 
speaks of the various streams entering Lake Itaska. Of one of 



ERRATUM. 

Since these pages went to press, I have learned that Mr. 
Julius Chambers, of the New York Herald, visited the head- 
waters of the Mississippi in 1872. He saw the lake now called 
Elk Lake, as it appears on his map under the name of Lake 
Dolly Varden. Chambers subsequently extended his trip the 
entire length of the Mississippi. This occurred several years 

prior to Captain Glazier's visit. 

J. W. R. 



SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



157 



these he says, ' so that, in obedience to the geographical rule that 
the sources of a river are those which are most distant from its 
mouth, this stream must be the infant Mississippi.' 




The Source of the Mississippi 



Captain Glazier's account was the first to call general attention 
to the position and importance of the lake in question. Whether 
it shall continue to be called Elk Lake or Lake Glazier, is a matter 



158 APPENDIX 

which custom only can decide. The Geological Survey and the 
Land Office adhere to Elk Lake. The new edition of the ' Ency- 
clopedia Britannica ' has adopted Lake Glazier as the name. 
Whether Elk Lake or Lake Itaska is to be considered the true 
source, is largely a matter of opinion. Some of the leading geog- 
raphers of the country adhere to Lake Itaska, but the size and 
depth of the lake to the south of Lake Itaska is certainly entitled 
to consideration, and in view of the opinion of Nicollet, quoted 
above, there can be no objection to considering this lake the prime 
source of the river. 

The Gulf Stream as a Factor in Climate. — The following 
letter represents the opinion of one of the leading hydrographers 
of the United States Coast Survey. It contains information not 
previously published. 

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Office, 
Washington, Aug. 27, 1888. 

Hon. John Hancock, Austin, Tex. 

Dear Sir : — I beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter of July 
24, which would have received earlier attention but for my ab- 
sence for a short time from the office, and the great press of 
business which awaited me upon my return. 

The subject of the Gulf Stream is one which has claimed the 
attention of physicists from the days of Columbus to the present 
time. They have one and all theorized without any really definite 
information even about the surface flow, not to mention the 
sub-currents, upon which to base their (in many instances) far- 
fetched conclusions. Beyond a doubt there is a stream of water 
flowing out between the capes of Florida and the Bahama Islands 
at a maximum velocity of about four miles per hour, and a mini- 
mum of about one mile per hour, and varying in temperature 
from 82 at the surface to about 50 at 475 fathoms — 2850 feet — 
where we strike bottom. 

Now it is a commonly accepted theory that this water, at this 
temperature, flowing at this velocity, warms up the whole north- 
eastern Atlantic Ocean, including the coasts of England, Scotland, 



GULF STREAM AS A FACTOR IN CLIMATE 159 

and Norway ; but was there ever anything more absurd ? The 
whole of the water passing out of the straits of Florida, and com- 
monly looked upon as the Gulf Stream, could not (in my opinion), 
if it were of the uniform temperature of 82 down to the bottom, 
produce a tithe of the effect claimed for it. The fact is that the 
whole of the water passing north through the Straits of Florida is 
in about the same proportion to that required to produce known 
effects in the Northeast Atlantic as the water of the Kanawha 
River in West Virginia is to the Mississippi. 

We have in the Atlantic Ocean a great Sargasso or grassy sea, 
and the same phenomenon exists in the Pacific, in relatively the 
same situation. Here are Nature's indications of two great 
oceanic eddies formed by similar agencies. That the one in the 
Pacific is formed by a great movement of warm surface water in a 
northeasterly direction, which warms up the coasts of Alaska, of 
British Columbia, and of the United States, no one will deny ; but 
it has no Gulf of Mexico to act as a great stand-pipe as is supposed 
to be the case with that in the Atlantic, yet we have precisely the 
same climatic conditions upon the northwest coast of America as 
upon the northwest coast of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

I make these remarks for no other purpose than to invite your 
thought and attention to the great probability of there being much 
false speculation in regard to what we have considered as the 
results of our Gulf Stream. 

So much for the Gulf Stream in general as regards its probable 
effect upon the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Now, for a particu- 
lar consideration of anything in this phenomenon which would be 
likely to affect harbors on the coast of Texas. I am myself of the 
opinion that the waters in the Gulf of Mexico are slightly higher 
than those in the Atlantic Ocean, at St. Augustine, Fernandino, or 
at Gun Cay, but I am certainly not prepared to say that it is 
higher, to any appreciable extent, than the waters of the Atlantic 
at New York or Boston. Such information as we have, based 
upon a single line of precise levels, indicates no such thing. If we 
substitute for our line of precise levels from Sandy Hook to St. 



160 APPENDIX 

Louis a line of levels up the Hudson and thence to Great Lakes, 
and thence water levels of the surface of the lakes with some 
intervening instrumental work between Chicago and St. Louis, we 
get the Gulf three feet higher than the ocean at Sandy Hook, but 
whoever in the present state of observed facts ventures to assert 
that we have any data to uphold the statement that you quote (28 
inches) must throw away, deliberately, our best information. 
Until the check lines of this work are entirely completed I am not 
prepared to say, nor would I venture a guess, at the difference of 
level between the Gulf and the waters at New York, although I 
have known some eminent scientific men who were fond of prat- 
tling on this subject. 

That the water which flows around the capes of Florida and 
out along its eastern coast, and which we commonly accept as the 
Gulf Stream, is supplied from the Caribbean Sea and around the 
west end of Cuba, we have ample proof gathered within the past 
three years, including the deep-sea current observations just made. 
That there is some circulation of warm water in the Gulf of 
Mexico, I am not prepared to deny. If so, it is simply a circula- 
tion, and not a very strong current flowing continuously in one 
direction. In our hydrographic work which covered the Gulf of 
Mexico (I here allude to ordinary surroundings taken for chart 
making) no well-defined current was ever noted, although currents 
from 1 to 2| knots per hour were frequently found, but they were 
running on different days and at different places to all points of 
the compass. So much so, in fact, that it was decided not to 
attempt to indicate them in our charts, on the ground that false 
information is worse than no information, for it seemed clear that 
north current to-day would be south current to-morrow. Had I 
under consideration the building of a harbor on the coast of 
Texas, I should not expect either assistance or retardation of my 
projects from anything like a Gulf Stream sweeping along the 
coast. On that assertion I can safely risk my reputation. Your 
remark as to our inadequate knowledge (and I do not speak of 
speculation, but of solid facts) is certainly very appropriate. The 



CRUSOE'S ISLAND 161 

question of the ocean currents is one that should demand close 
attention from our people. It is scarcely ten years since the prob- 
lem of anchoring vessels in the deep sea was successfully solved, 
and the apparatus devised with which to measure the direction 
and velocity of the currents from the surface to the bottom, and 
the temperature of the same is of even a much later date. When 
a great and all-absorbing problem, like that upon which you are 
now engaged, is to be solved, we all feel the need of the informa- 
tion, the road to which now lies open before us, but the means for 
pursuing it are very limited. Instead of ten or a dozen ships, 
equipped and supplied for this purpose and anchored simultane- 
ously along the great highways of commerce over the seas, with an 
appropriation of $100,000 for their support and maintenance, 
we have one ship with an appropriation of $8000 grudgingly 
bestowed. Only partial results can be obtained in this manner, 
and they will come to us slowly. 

You doubtless have Coast Survey Reports for 1885 and 1886 
which contain appendices by Lieutenant J. E. Pillsbury, U.S.N. , 
assistant in the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, commanding the 
Coast Survey Steamer Blake. With the facts set forth in these 
Appendices there begins an era in explorations and discovered 
facts concerning the Gulf Stream (as we call it) and other oceanic 
currents from surface to bottom, which may, some of these days, 
induce the leading maritime powers of the world to unite in a 
series of simultaneous and long-continued observations of currents 
in mid-ocean, if our own government persists in refusal, which 
cannot fail to be of vast importance to mankind. 

Yours respectfully, 

(Signed) B. A. Colonna, 

Assistant in Charge of the Office. 

Crusoe's Island. — The island of Juan Fernandez, or Massa 
Tierra, is dear to the heart of every schoolboy because of its 
alleged connection with the story of Robinson Crusoe. It is a 



162 APPENDIX 

delightful strip of land thirteen miles long and four miles wide, situ- 
ated about 400 miles west of Chili. Its fame is due to the enforced 
residence of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, whom, it is asserted, 
De Foe made the hero of his famous story. 

A study of the story, however, can but lead to the conclusion 
that Selkirk was not the character whose misadventures are related 
therein, and that the wrecking of the vessel took place — not in 
the Pacific Ocean, but on one of the Windward Islands, about ten 
leagues northeast of the Island of Trinidad. 

In the account of the casting away of the ship Crusoe says : 
"About the twelfth day (of the storm), the weather abating, the 
master made an observation as well as he could and found he was 
in about eleven degrees north latitude, but that he was twenty-two 
degrees of longitude difference from Cape Augustinho (the extreme 
western cape of Brazil, near the town of Parahyba), so that he 
found he was upon the coast of Guiana, or the north part of Brazil, 
beyond the river Amazons, towards that of the Oroonoque (Ori- 
noco), commonly called the Great River, and began to consult 
with me what course he should take, for the ship was leaking and 
very much disabled, and he was going directly back to the coast 
of Brazil. 

" I was positively against that, and looking over the charts of the 
sea-coast of America with him we concluded there was no inhab- 
ited country for us to have recourse to till we came within the 
circle of the Caribbee Islands, and therefore resolved to stand 
away for Barbadoes, which, by keeping off at sea to avoid the in- 
draft of the bay or Gulf of Mexico (probably the Gulf Stream), we 
might easily perform, as we hoped, in about fifteen days' sail. . . . 
With this design we changed our course and steered away north- 
west by west in order to reach some of our English islands, where 
I hoped for relief. . . . When being in the latitude of twelve 
degrees and eighteen minutes N. a second storm came upon us. 
... In this distress, the wind still blowing very hard, one of our 
men early in the morning cried out, ' Land ! ' and we had no 
sooner run out of the cabin to look out, in hopes of seeing where- 



CRUSOE'S ISLAND 163 

abouts in the world we were than the ship struck upon the sand." 
Then follows the description of the fatal wreck of the boats and 
the landing on the lonely island which for so many years was the 
home of Crusoe. 

Here we have a detailed account of the locality of the ship and 
of the storm, which was evidently one of the cyclones so common 
in the Caribbean Sea. Now in order to have reached the island 
of Juan Fernandez the ship must either have been carried across 
South America in the broadest part, or else have been swept 
around the entire continent, a distance of 10,000 miles, in about 
ten hours. But no such supposition is necessary to carry out 
the story, for the island of Tobago, now a thriving British colony, 
meets all the requirements of the position and bearings of the wreck. 

The shores of this island are washed by a current of the great 
river Orinoco, and its latitude, longitude, and bearings from the 
locality in which the master took his observations correspond so 
closely to the locality of Tobago that the considerations of any 
other is out of the question. 

At a time when Crusoe was in mortal terror of being killed by 
the cannibals who occasionally visited Tobago he was made happy 
by the discovery of a cave, which he used as a place of refuge and 
concealment. In Lieutenant Cappadose's ' Sixteen Years in the 
West Indies ' the author describes a cave on the southwest coast 
of the island under a headland named Crown Point, which lies 
opposite the island of Trinidad. The cave is about twenty feet 
long, half as broad, and of a height sufficient to permit a tall man 
to stand upright. ' At the extreme end is an aperture only large 
enough to admit a very small animal.' 

By comparing this with De Foe's description it will be seen that 
the two agree as to position and general dimensions. The aper- 
ture which Cappadose believed by common report to be ' of con- 
siderable extent,' Crusoe explored and found that it led to a 
second cave. Crusoe soon found herds of wild goats on the 
island, and it is a noteworthy fact that these wild animals were 
formerly abundant there. He also found sea-fowls in abundance, 



J 64 APPENDIX 

and even to the present day the islands of this group are rookeries 
for myriads of them. Crusoe mentions the killing of a huge turtle, 
and tortoises answering to the description are numerous. 

In coasting about the island on his raft Crusoe found the estuary 
of a creek up which the tide ran a distance of two miles. The 
estuary was bordered with ' many pleasant savannahs, or meadows, 
plain, smooth and covered with grass ; and on the rising parts of 
them (the terraces) next to the higher ground ' he ' found a 
great deal of tobacco.' The next day, going somewhat further 
than he had the day previously, the savannahs gave place to a 
wooded country, where he found fruits, ' particularly melons, on 
the ground, and grapes in great abundance.' 

He also mentions incidentally, that he discovered large ' plants 
of aloes, but did not understand them,' and ' several sugar- 
canes.' Crossing the ridge of hills, he descended into a vale, where 
there was ' an abundance of cocoa-trees, orange, lemon and citron 
(lime) trees.' 

Now all these items describe the flora and fauna of Tobago and 
the other islands near by, and it would hardly be an exagger- 
ation to say that in not a single circumstance do they describe the 
island of Juan Fernandez. The two rainy seasons of Tobago, 
according to Crusoe, were from August to October, and from 
March to May. This corresponds to the climate of the Windward 
Islands, but not to that of Juan Fernandez, where the rainy season 
occurs in June, July, and August. 

The furious currents which Crusoe describes on the coast of 
Tobago are confirmed by the Admiralty charts. The cannibals, 
whose occasional visits gave Crusoe so much distress and fear, 
were none else but the Caribs, and no such people are found 
on the Chilian coast. Indeed, if there were, it would hardly be 
credible that they would attempt a canoe journey of 400 miles for 
the sake of making a cannibal feast. 

Furthermore, Alexander Selkirk was not wrecked, but was put 
ashore on the island for mutinous conduct, while Crusoe was ship- 
wrecked. 



CRUSOE'S ISLAND 165 

Now, the most savage critic of De Foe's story of ' Robinson 
Crusoe ' would not for a moment assert that it was a creation of 
the author's imagination. An author like De Foe certainly could 
create a story equally marvellous as that of Crusoe, but it would 
not be consistent in itself. A landsman without a nautical educa- 
tion would be as helpless in dealing with the technicalities of nav- 
igation as a sailor in discussing the ethics of theology. No, the 
real author of the story was a man of fair education, who was born 
to the sea. In other words, De Foe's conception is based upon 
a true story, minutely and elaborately told. 

There is a marked difference, however, between the Crusoe of 
the first part of the narrative and the Crusoe of the continuation 
or second part, and not even the skill of De Foe can divest each 
character or narrator of his individuality. The second part may 
possibly be a fiction; the first part is not — it would be simply an 
impossibility for the most vivid imagination to conceive a story so 
correct and so consistent in its details and true in its geographical 
description. 

The only inconsistent statement in the narrative is strongest evi- 
dence of its genuineness. Crusoe asserts that after being tossed 
about in the storm several days — a cyclone, by the way — the ship 
was in distress and leaked badly. The master was for putting back 
to the Brazilian coast, but Crusoe counselled going to Barbadoes. 
So the ship's course was changed to northwest by west, and after a 
few hours' sail a second storm overtook them. 

Now, if we examine a mariner's chart we shall find that the 
vessel was in a region of cyclones during the season when such 
storms are prevalent. Furthermore, the direction of the cyclones 
in this region is northwest by west. Therefore what Crusoe de- 
scribes as taking place must of necessity have occurred. He states 
the facts of the case correctly, but misinterprets them when he 
declares that they were overtaken by a second storm. What they 
really did was to steer the vessel back into the same storm from 
which they had just escaped. De Foe could not possibly have 
jumped upon this incident of the narrative by accident. — J.W. R. 
{Philadelphia Times) . 



166 APPENDIX 

The Orthography of Bering's Name. — There is a very per- 
sistent error in the spelling of the name of the bold Danish navi- 
gator and discoverer, made famous by his work in the Arctic 
Ocean and along the shores of Alaska. The incorrect form Behr- 
ing is now so firmly fixed that but few writers use the correct form 
Bering. Within a few years, however, the original form has been 
growing in favor. The following communication gives all neces- 
sary evidence in the case : — 

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
Washington, Jan. 26, 1885. 

Prof. J. W. Red way, New York City. 

Dear Sir : — In regard to the orthography Bering, as used in 
the Coast Survey and other government publications, I beg leave 
to state that your letter furnishes its own answer, viz., Commander 
Ivan Ivanovich Bering uniformly spelled his name Bering, as do 
his descendants now living in Denmark. The erroneous form 
Behring, first introduced in the second decade of the present cen- 
tury, has become so thoroughly fixed in popular English and 
American usage that the restoration of the original and correct 
form, particularly in text-books and hand-books, progresses very 
slowly. Special students of Alaska steadily adhere to the correct 
form Bering, and I take occasion to congratulate you in the 
attempt to spread the correct form before a large and increasing 
audience. Common errors are corrected only with great difficulty. 

Very respectfully, 

J. E. HlLGARD, 

Superintendent 



GEOGRAPHICAL READING 167 



GEOGRAPHICAL READING. 

With the multitude of books of travel that are poured out 
upon the public from a score of publishing houses, there should 
be no dearth of reading. Books of sterling value, however, are 
not numerous ; and many very popular books, while they are 
fascinating because of their vivid word painting, are worthless so 
far as geographical merit is concerned. The following list might 
easily be expanded many times its present length, but it is doubt- 
ful if its value would be materially increased. 

Books Every Teacher Should Own. 

The latest series of text-books on geography. 

Primer of Geography. Grove. Appleton & Co. 

Elementary Physical Geography. Geike. " " 

First Book of Geology. Shaler. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Astronomical Geography. Jackson. " " 

Comparative Geography. Karl Ritter. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 
Typical Studies in Physical Geography, — a series of photographic 
views. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Geography, Historical, Physical, etc. Johnston. Stanford. 

Earth and Man. Guyot. 

Child and Nature. Frye. Hyde Park Pub. Co. 

Pocket Atlas of the World. Ivison, Blakeman & Co. 

Methods of Teaching Geography. 

Child and Nature. Frye. Hyde Park Pub. Co. 

The Teaching of Geography. Geike. Macmillan. 

Methods of Teaching Geography. Crocker. Boston Supply Co. 

How to Study Geography. Parker. Appleton & Co. 
How to Teach Geography. Carver. 

Teacher's Supplement to First B'k of Geol. Shaler. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Methods and Aids in Geography. King. Lee & Shepard 



168 



APPENDIX 



Elements of Pedagogy. White. 
Topics in Geography. Nichols. 
How to Use Globes. Brownell. 
Essentials of Geography. Fisher. 
Talks on Teaching. Patridge. 
Manual of Methods. Hopkins. 



Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 

D. C. Heath & Co. 

Andrews & Co. 

Kellogg & Co. 
Lee & Shepard. 



General Works of Reference. 

Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Johnson's Cyclopedia. 

New American Cyclopedia (with supplements). 

Lippincott's Gazetteer. 

Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel. 6 vols. 

Keith Johnston's Geography, Historical, Physical, and Descriptive. 

Dana's Geology. Ivison, Blakeman & Co. 

Le Conte's Geology. Appleton & Co. 

Geike's Geology. " " 

Dictionary of Altitudes. Gannet. U.S. Geol. Survey. 

Boundaries of the States and the United States. Gannet. " " 



Special Works of Reference, — Physical Geography. 

The Earth. Elisee Rectus. Harper & Bros. 

The Ocean. Elisee Pectus. " " 
Physical Geography of the Sea. Maury. 

Elementary Physical Geography. Geike. Macmillan. 

Physiography. Huxley. Appleton & Co. 
Cosmos. Humboldt. 

Volcanoes. Judd. Appleton & Co. 

Earthquakes. Milne. " " 

Forms of Water. Tyndall. " " 

Weather. Abercromby. " " 

American Weather. Greely. Scribner & Co. 

Great Ice Age. James Geike. Appleton & Co. 

Climate and Time. Croll. " " 
Geological Survey of Idaho and Wyoming. Hayden. U.S. Geol. Survey. 

The Geological History of the Grand Canon. Dutton. " " 

Lake Lahontan. Russell. " " 

Three Cruises of the Blake. Agassis. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READING 169 

Lake Bonneville. Gilbert. U.S. Geol. Survey. 

The Arid Region. Powell. 

The Ice Age in North America. Wright. Appleton & Co. 

Physical Geography. Somerville, Mrs. 

Handy Book of Meteorology. Buchan. Longmans & Co. 

Depths of the Sea. Thomson. Macmillan. 

Coral Islands. Dana. 

Physical Geography of the Mississippi River. Redway. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Geography of Coast Lines. Law son. 

Geography of River Systems. Lawson. 

Climatic Changes of Later Geological Times. Whitney. Little & Brown. 

The United States, Physical and Statistical. Whitney. "■ " 

Maps, Atlases, and Globes. 

Stieler's Atlas (new ed. 1889-90). 
Johnston's (Keith) Royal Atlas (new ed. 1888). 
Johnson's (Ruddiman) Atlases. 
Andree's Atlas (new ed. 1887). 

The foregoing are foreign publications. The atlases vary in 
price from $10 to $40. Of these, Andree's, price about $12, is 
a marvel of mechanical execution, and is one of the best ever pro- 
duced. All foreign atlases are defective in American geography. 

Bradley's Atlas. Bradley & Co. 

Cram's Atlases. Cram. 

Rand & McNally's Atlas and Shipper's Guide. Rand & McNally. 

Descriptive Atlas. Ivison, Blakeman & Co. 

Appleton's Atlas of the United States. Appleton & Co. 

Of the foregoing, the Descriptive Atlas, price about $5.00, and 
Appleton's Atlas of the United States, price $1.50, are the most 
available for teachers' use. The former is a general atlas, very 
complete in descriptive geography, and with most excellent maps 
of the states and territories. The latter embraces the states of 
the United States only, and contains very valuable statistical 
matter. 



170 APPENDIX 

There are but few good wall maps published. Those which 
are respectable in geographical features are generally wanting in 
pedagogical qualities, and many of those which have been com- 
piled for their pedagogical value are thoroughly disreputable in 
every other respect. The following are among the better class : — 

Berghaus Physical Map of the World, — one of the best ever published. 
Guyot's Physical Maps. 
Stanford's Wall Maps. 
Johnson's (Ruddiman) Wall Maps. 
Rand & McNally's Wall Maps. 

Andrews 1 Globes. The 1 8-inch globe on high stand is a very desirable 
one. Johnston {Keith). Andrews & Co. 

Joslin's Globes. D. C. Heath & Co. 

The Stellar Tellurian. " " 

The Cosmosphere. Bailey. Bailey. 

Progressive Outline Maps. D. C. Heath & Co. 

The last-named maps will be found invaluable in studying 
geography and history. They may be edited either as physical, 
political, or historical maps. 

Relief Maps, Models, Photographic Studies, etc. 

Geological Models and Studies. Shaler. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Relief Maps of the Continents. King. 
" " " " Frye. 

Relief Maps showing Progressive Effects of Earth Sculpture. Davis. 
Typical Studies in Physical Geography. Redway. D. C. Heath & Co. 

The last-named series embraces a large number of photographic 
studies in orography, earth-sculpture (erosion, corrasion, and 
sapping), vulcanology (both selenic and telluric), to which will 
shortly be added photo-relief maps of the continents. 

Mathematical and Astronomical. 

Popular Astronomy. Newcomb. Harper & Bros. 

The New Astronomy. Langley. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READING 



171 



Astronomical Geography. Jackson. 

How to Use Globes. Brownell. 

Primer of Astronomy. Lockyer. 

Traite des Projections des Cartes Geographique. 



D. C. Heath & Co. 

Andrews & Co. 

Appleton & Co. 

Germain et Cie., Paris. 



Mathematical Geography. Clarke. (In Encyclopaedia Britannica.) 



Exploration. 
Arctic Explorations. 
Open Polar Sea. 
Arctic Voyages. 
In the Arctic Seas. 
Three Years of Arctic Service. 
African Explorations. 
The Voyages of Captain Cook. 
Stanley and the Congo. 
Australia. 

North America. 
North America. 
Mexico. 

California, Oregon, and the Sandwich Islands. 
Our Arctic Province. 
Two Years Before the Mast. 
Geological Surveys of Wyoming and Idaho. 
Rambles in Wonderland. 
California of the South. 
The Great Fur Land. 
The Apache Country. 
The Great Lone Land. 
The Wild North Land. 
Publications of U.S. Geol. Survey. 



Kane. 
Hayes. 

Nordenskjold. 

McClintock. 

Greely. 

Livingstone. 

Kip pes. 

Packard. 

Fitzgero 7 d. 



Hay den and Selwyn. 

Oder. 

Nordhoff. 

Elliott. 

Dana. 

Hay den (U.S. Geol. Sur.). 

Stanley. 

Lindley. 

Robi?ison. 

Ross Browne. 

Butler. 



South America. 




Capital Cities of South America. 


Curtis. 


Journey in Brazil. 


Agassiz. 


Up the Amazon and Madeira. 


Matthews. 


Chili. 


Boyd. 


Boy Travellers in South America. 


Knox. 



172 APPENDIX 




Dutch Guiana. 


Palgrave. 


Argentine Republic and Paraguay. 


Page. 


Peru. 


Squier. 


Adventures in Trinidad and Up the Orinoco. 


Kingston. 


Travels. 


Von Humboldt. 


Forests of Guiana. 


Brett. 


Europe. 




Guide Books. 


Baedecker. 


' Walks ' in London, Rome, Venice, etc. 


Hare. 


Land of the Midnight Sun. 


Die Chaillu. 


Hours of Exercise in the Alps. 


Tyndall. 


Untrodden Spain. 


Rose. 


Picturesque Holland. 


Havo7id. 


Travels in Greece and Russia. 


Bayard Taylor. 



Northern Travels. 

Views Afoot. 

Iceland. 

Irish Homes and Irish Hearts. 

Scotland and the Scotch. 

Zigzag Journeys in Europe. 

Turkey and the Turks. 

Up the Volga to the Fair of Nijne Novgorod. 

Austria-Hungary. 



Sinclair. 
Butterworth. 

Cox. 

Munro-Bntler-Johnstone. 

Kay. 



Asia. 



Travels in Siberia. 
Lands of the Saracen. 
India and Its Millions. 
The Wonderful City of Tokio. 
Overland Through Asia. 
The Middle Kingdom. 
Central and Eastern Arabia. 
Persia and the Persians. 
China and the Chinese. 
English Governess in Siam. 
Our Colonies and India. 
Ride to Khiva. 
Roof of the World. 



Kennan. 
Bayard Taylor. 
Prime. 

Greey. 

Knox. 

Williatns. 

Palgrave. 

Benjamin. 

Nevins. 

Leonowens. 

Rajisome. 

Bumaby. 

Gordon. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READING 



173 



Life and Travel in India. 

Japan. 

Malacca and Indo-China. 

Land of the White Elephant. 

Travels in Bokhara. 



Leonowens. 

Reiss. 

Thompson. 

Vincent. 

Burnes. 



Travels in Africa. 
Sailing on the Nile. 
Life in the Desert. 
Lake Regions of Africa. 



Africa. 

See also Exploration. 

Denham. 
Laporte. 
Du Couret. 
Gedde. 
Die Chaillu. 



My Apingi Kingdom. 

Journey into Ashango Land. 

Lost in the Jungle. 

Equatorial Africa. 

Country of Dwarfs. 

Stories of the Gorilla Country. 

Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia. 

First Footsteps in Africa. 

Heart of Africa. 

Seven Years' Service on the Slave Coast. 

Through the Dark Continent. 



Baker. 
Barton. 

Schweinfurth . 

Huntley. 

Stanley. 



Australasia and Polynesia. 

Coral Islands. Dana. 

Australasia (Stanford's Compend. of Travel). Wallace. 
Australasia. Fitzgerald. 

Bush Life in Queensland. Grant. 

Across Australia. Warburton. 



Juvenile. 



Young America Abroad (series). 
The ' Rollo ' Books (series). 
The Boy Travellers (series). 
Knockabout Club (series). 
New Way Round the World. 
Zigzag Journeys (series). 



Adams (Oliver Optic). 

Abbott. 

Kfiox. 

Stephens. 

Coffin. 

Butterworth. 



174 APPENDIX 




Eyes and No Eyes. 


Barbauld, Mrs. 


Round the World, by a Boy. 


Smiles. 


What Darwin Saw. 




Seven Little Sisters. 


Andrews. 


Each and All. 


it 


Life and Her Children. 


Buckley. 


Winners in Life's Race. 


<< 


Life in the North. 


Schwatka. 


Alaska's Great River. 


<< 


Little Folks of Other Lands. 


Chaplin and Hupiphrey 


Family Flights. 


Hale. 


Fairy Land of Science. 


Buckley. 


Land of the Midnight Sun. 


Du Chaillu. 


Orient Boys. 


Keene. 


Hans Brinker. 


Dodge. 


Sea and Sky. 


Blackiston. 


Little People of Asia. 


Miller. 


The Young Llanero. 


Kingston. 


All Aboard for Sunrise Lands. 


Rand. 


" " " Lakes and Mountains. 


<< 


Up the Tapajos. 


Ellis. 


Lost in the Wilds. 


<< 


The World by the Fireside. 


Kirby. 


Science for the Young. 


Abbott. 



Newspapers and Magazines. 

American Notes and Queries. 

Science. 

Supplement to Scientific American. 

Nature. 

The Sunday editions of the better class of metropolitan daily 
papers usually contain much interesting geographical information, 
which is far more trustworthy than that obtained from ordinary 
tourists' books of travel. 



Geography. 



" The peg upon which ths greatest quantity of useful and entertaining 
information may be suspended. ' ' 



Progressive Outline Maps y 



Of North America; South America; Europe; Central and Western 
Europe; Asia; Africa; the United States; New England; Middle At- 
lantic States; Southern States, Eastern Division; Southern States, 
Western Division; Central States, Eastern Division; Central States, 
Western Division; Pacific States; Great Britain; England; the World 
on Mercator's Projection; Greece; Italy; Germany; France; and Ancient 
History (The World as known to Ancients). Printed on substantial 
drawing paper, and adapted to lead-pencil or to ink. 10x12 inches. 
U. S. and Mercator's Projection, 12x20 inches. Ancient History Map, 
12 x 15 inches. Price by mail, 2 cents each ; or, $1.50 per hundred. Map 
of Ancient History, 3 cents each; or, $2.50 per hundred. 

THESE outlines are for the use of the pupil, and are based on the 
assumption that map-drawing should be taught as a means, and 
not as an end ; that its purpose is to assist the mind in acquiring and 
fixing geographical facts, and that to memorize the construction lines 
of other methods and the hundreds of nameless projections and inden- 
tations of a tortuous coast-line is a waste of time and of nervous energy 
which would be better employed in studying important and interesting 
particulars concerning the physical features, climate, products, etc., of 
the interior. 

In tracing the outline, the pupil acquires a correct knowledge of the 
form of the country, and, as each day's lesson proceeds, he can fill in 
his map to correspond with the detailed knowledge gained. 

The figures on pages 8 and 9 represent in miniature an outline 
as given to the pupil, and the same as it appeared when the study of 
the country was completed. 

Among the advantages of the Progressive Outline Maps, we may 
mention the following : — 

I. Economy of time. By using the Progressive Outline Maps 
all the practical benefits of map-drawing are secured. By tracing the 
dim outline, and then developing a continent along such special lines as 



GEOGRAPHY. 



the teacher may direct, every important feature is clearly fixed in the 
mind of the pupil, in as little time as is ordinarily consumed in memoriz- 
ing the construction-lines and diagrams of other systems ; and the still 
longer time required to memorize the irregularities of a contour can be 
devoted to the study of the more important topics of surface, climate, 
productions, etc. 

2. Economy of energy and patience. A large amount of energy 
is expended by the pupil who makes an original development of the 
outline of even one continent. The work usually becomes uninterest- 
ing, and discouragement begins before the map is half completed. By 
using the Progressive Outlines, however, he proceeds with more 
rapidity and accuracy, and at the same time does so much original 
work, that he is pleased and encouraged. Nor is the teacher's patience 
so severely tried by efforts that in the end are only nondescripts. 

3. Accuracy. They keep a correct form of the country under con- 
sideration constantly before the pupil. 

4. General usefulness, (a) These maps may be used to indicate, 
besides the usual facts of indentations, projections, mountains, rivers, 
countries, states, towns, etc., the locations of areas of mineral deposits, 
of forest growth, of prairies, deserts, plateaus, of the various kinds of 
soil, of staple products, of dense population, of manufacturing districts, 
etc. 

(5) For developing the features of continents, made specially promi- 
nent in Physical Geography, these maps are very valuable. 

(V) In connection with the study of Ancient History, these maps 
may be used to represent the location of ancient tribes and barbarous 
hordes of men, the provinces of ancient empires, the distribution of 
territory after conquests, etc., etc. 

(d) In Modern History the maps of North America and the United 
States may be used for indicating the early discoveries, the settlements 
and the general development of the continent, the colonies and the 
nation, in connection with the text-book study of these features. No 
time can be spared in History tor practice in map-drawing. 

(<?) For rapid and thorough tests of pupils' knowledge of Political, 
Descriptive, and Physical Geography, and of many facts in History, no 
series of questions and answers can equal in three hours what may be 
ascertained, practically, of their knowledge of these subjects by these 
Outlines in thirty minutes. Such a map can be easily and rapidly 
inspected by the examiner. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Expressions from prominent teachers, who have already successfully 
used these maps with classes for these purposes, indicate a decided 
preference in their favor, and a positive unwillingness to return to the 
imperfect outlines constructed by the pupils themselves. 

5. Economy in price. These maps cost the pupil two cents each. 
Several times that amount is usually expended for paper required for 
the practice in producing a satisfactory map by other methods. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE PROGRESSIVE OUTLINE 

MAPS. 

Many ways of using the Progressive Outline Maps will suggest 
themselves to teachers. A practical teacher who has used them for 
some time has kindly prepared for us the following directions descrip- 
tive of his own method. These directions are for advanced classes, 
and include the less within the greater. 

Teachers in the lower grades can readily modify or omit as the con- 
dition of their classes may demand. Colored inks and pencils are 
recommended. 

The great object of the Progressive Outline Maps, as of all map- 
making, is to help the pupils to remember the important facts of geog- 
raphy. Maps should therefore be developed in connection with the 
subject as it is studied. 

One or two lessons are given to the study of the contour of a country 
from the text-book, and then the Progressive Outline is placed in 
the hands of the pupil. 

1. The pupil now traces the outline with pen or pencil, and after- 
wards reads the same as a lesson in cipher, telling where the country 
is with reference to zone circles, other grand divisions, and the oceans 
bordering upon it; also mentioning its general shape, the important 
projections and indentations. 

He next prints their appropriate names, against the features, or, if 
a member of a lower class, writes them. Two or three short lessons in 
printing, with a few minutes 1 practice, will greatly facilitate this work, 
and enable the pupil to present a nicely made map. 

2. After the surface has been carefully studied, the mountains, peaks, 
and volcanoes are drawn in the map from the text-book, with such 
changes as the teacher directs. The names of these chains, etc., should 
be written or printed as they are drawn. 



Picturesque Geography. 




RIVER AND VALLEY. 



A SET OF 12 PICTURES, 
PRINTED IN OIL COLORS, SIZE, 15 BY 20 INCHES> 

end intended primarily to picture to the beginner (or child), the nat- 
ural divisions of land and water, which are usually named in abstract 
definitions and at the same time to meet the modern demand for 
artistic and instructive pictures for decoration of school walls. 

They are produced in the finest style of chromo-lithography. 

The series consists of : 

1. River and Valley. 7. Cliffs and Cape. 

2. Roads and Railways. 8. Strait. 

3. Hills, Plain and Confluence of Rivers. 9. Islands. 

4. Mountain-Pass and Torrent. 10. Isthmus, Peninsula, and Haven. 

5. Glacier. 11. Coral Islands and Reef. 

6. Lake. 12. Volcano and Gulf. 

Price, per Set, in Sheets*, with 24 pages of letterpress description, $2.oc. 
Mounted 011 Boards, per Set, $5 .00. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., 

Publishers, e . . . Boston, New York and Chicago. 



Q29 708 tm 



